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Noncredit workforce education: Uncounted & unmeasured
No full textAs lifelong learning and workforce education grow increasingly more important in American life, the mission of community colleges shifts more and more toward continuing education, certificate training, and workforce training. The lack of a standard set of indicators has led to a variety of approaches to the assessment of noncredit workforce education programs [NWEP] at community colleges.UNCOUNTED & UNMEASURED
As lifelong learning and workforce education grow increasingly more important in
American life, the mission of community colleges shifts more and more toward
continuing education, certificate training, and workforce training.1 The lack of a
standard set of indicators has led to a variety of approaches to the assessment of
noncredit workforce education programs [NWEP] at community colleges.
ENROLLMENT (USA)
5+ MILLION
NONCREDIT
LEARNERS
ENROLLED2
POPULAR OFFERINGS
48PERCENT OF
TOP COURSES:
MANAGEMENT
&HEALTHCARE
ALIGNMENT
1 OUT OF 25
LEADERS
ASSESS NONCREDIT
[1] Mendoza et al., 2009 [2] AACC Fact Sheet, Fall 2012 [3] Middle States Commission on Higher Education
WORKFORCE LEADERS
LOVE THEIR COURSE
EVALUATIONS AND SURVEYS
ACCREDITATION GUIDELINES
MIDDLE STATES IS THE
ONLY AGENCY WITH
NONCREDIT
ASSESSMENT
GUIDELINES3
SAMPLE POPULATION
OVER
186
LEADERS
IDENTIFIED TO PARTICIPATE IN STUDY
CUSTOMER SATISFACTION
Significantly
worse
About the
same
Significantly
better
At an all-time
high
Item 3B: Compared to the last
five years, your customer
satisfaction is…
RESPONSE RATE (28%)
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
8/4
# of Respondents (2014)
UNEXPECTED FINDINGS
WEAK RELATIONSHIP
BETWEEN PERCEIVED
REVENUE GROWTH
& FACULTY ADOPTION
OF ASSESSMENT
50 TOTAL STUDY
PARTICIPANTS
The respondents were from a wide variety of campus settings
ranging from large city to rural town, at 50 different institutions
in 20 different states across all census regions. About 46% of
the study institutions enrolled more than 10,000 students, 22%
enrolled 5,000-9,999 students, and 24% enrolled between
2000-4999 students. Target population = 1,132 colleges.2
NO TWO
PROGRAMS
ASSESS THE SAME
Despite the abundance of ideas about how to approach NWEP
assessment, there lacks a clear and simple roadmap for how
administrators may prioritize and select from disparate metrics,
methods, measures, outputs, outcomes, and methodologies. As
community colleges move ahead in the assessment of non-credit
workforce education, they need to consider and plan for the role
of emerging techniques and assessment tools that may have
particular relevance for their institution.
DMCCPA / T Tesfamichael, Doctoral Degree Candidate
COMMON METHODS
Copyright © 2014 Tiffany Tesfamichael. All Rights Reserved.
LIKE CREDIT PROGRAMS
4%
46%
38%
12%
8/6 8/8 8/10 8/12 8/14 8/16 8/18
DMCCPA / T Tesfamichael, Doctoral Degree Candidate
Absent a common and accepted set of quality
indicators for NWEP and an accreditation
process with authority to measure noncredit
course quality and program-level outcomes:
• It is difficult for education consumers, educators and
businesses to compare program quality between
community colleges, or
• It is difficult to benchmark programs for continuous
improvement efforts.
Key Literature (22) Themes (T1, T2, T3, T4)
Bailey & Morest, 2004; Jacobs &
Voorhees, 2006; Boggs, 2004; Ozmun,
2012; Voorhees & Milam, 2005; Grubb,
Badway, & Bell, 2003; Ganzglass, Bird, &
Prince, 2011; Bers, 2008; Mullin, 2012;
Van Noy, et al., 2008c; Wu, Lin, & Chang,
2011; Seybert, 2002
· NWEP Policy in the two-year sector
Ozmun, 2012; Voorhees & Milam, 2005;
Ganzglass, Bird, & Prince, 2011; Mullin,
2012; Van Noy, et al., 2008c; Wu, Lin, &
Chang, 2011; Seybert, 2002; Geertshuis
& Fazey, 2006; Nichols, 1995; Suskie,
2009; Walvoord, 2010
· Learning outcomes assessment
methods (for-credit)
Deming, 1986; Boggs, 2004; Jenkins &
Spence, 2006; Ozmun, 2012; Voorhees &
Milam, 2005; Grubb, Badway, & Bell,
2003; Bers, 2008; Yukl, 2010; Van Noy,
et al., 2008c; Wu, Lin, & Chang, 2011;
Seybert, 2002; Gahagan, Dingfelder, &
Pei, 2010; Chaplot, 2010
· T3: Leadership impact on NWEP
quality control
Jenkins & Spence, 2006; Voorhees &
Milam, 2005; Bers, 2011; Van Noy, et al.,
2008c; Wu, Lin, & Chang, 2011;
Geertshuis & Fazey, 2006; Nichols, 1995;
Suskie, 2009; Walvoord, 2010
· Existing methods for program
evaluation (business and
education)
The purpose of this study is to examine
community college practices for evaluating
noncredit workforce education program
[NWEP] quality, effectiveness, and outcomes.
RQ1: What key metrics are used by two-year institutions to evaluate
noncredit workforce program effectiveness?
RQ2: What are the strengths and weaknesses of the current
approach to evaluating noncredit workforce education effectiveness?
RQ3: What metrics are most appropriate for use by two-year
institutions to evaluate noncredit workforce development
training? Why?
T1
T2
T3
T4
NWEPs provide a means for learners who are
not yet ready, for any number of reasons, to
begin a degree program. Improved evaluation of
noncredit courses is key to a quality education
for unserved and underserved populations.
DMCCPA / T Tesfamichael, Doctoral Degree Candidate
Inputs
What:
Non-credit
workforce
education
programs data
(e.g., Previous
program review
outputs)
Who:
-Learners
-Faculty
-Administrators
Activity
How:
Learners submit
data passively and
actively
Instructors earn
rewards for
participating in
activities that
build proficiency
in non-credit
assessment
Program
administrators
track activities
using a toolkit
Activity
How:
A Toolkit:
Review approaches
to outcomes
assessment (i.e.,
Figure 2; Tables 5,
6, and 7)
+
Select Indicators
(e.g., direct and
indirect measures ,
traditional and
non-traditional
measures, self-assessments,
badges, employer
surveys)
Output
What:
A non-credit
program review
that is either:
1) Standardized
2) Free-form
3) Self-study
4) External-focus
or
5) Mixed
Outcome
Why:
An on-target
program review
that reflects the
priorities and
performance of
the program and
learners
Improved internal
process
Improved student
learning outcomes
Assumptions: The primary drivers of non-credit workforce education assessment should be desired learning outcomes,
employer feedback, and program-level goals. The secondary drivers of non-credit assessment should be funding source,
accrediting agency guidelines, and institutional goals. With the exception of Middle States Commission on Higher Education,
accrediting guidelines remain ill-defined for non-credit workforce education.
The premise of this logic model is that the inputs, activities,
outputs, and outcomes can be derived as responses to the
questions: What, Who, How, and Why? Once the data is captured,
the program administrator is empowered to build the components
of the program review. The output of the process is a program
review that aligns with the purpose and intended goals of the
review. The final outcomes are the observed results of the non-credit
program being measured.
I. BEGAN WITH A SYSTEMATIC REVIEW
110 SOURCES
SCHOLARLY AND GREY LITERATURE
EXPERT PANEL
II. SUPPLEMENTED WITH PRIMARY RESEARCH
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGN
GROUNDED THEORY
CONSTANT COMPARATIVE METHOD
III. CONDUCTED QUALITATIVE ONLINE SURVEY
SUBSAMPLE of 50 RESPONDENTS (N=186)
PURPOSIVE SAMPLING, 90% CL, μ ± 11.5
SENIOR WORKFORCE PRACTITIONERS
IV. CONDUCTING FOLLOW-UP INTERVIEWS
8 SUBJECTS (DATA ANALYSIS IN PROGRESS)
SUBSAMPLED FROM ONLINE SURVEY
10 QUESTIONS, SEMI-STRUCTURED VIA PHONE
High number of sources for (RQ3), fewer sources for
(RQ2), and the least number of sources for (RQ1)
The literature suggests there are a variety of NWEP
metrics and methods
Assessment models in education and business
include: Nichols five-column model, national
assessment models, Kirkpatrick-based models, and
nontraditional assessment methods
There are too many different types of noncredit
workforce education programs across institutions
An effective way for leaders to improve quality is to
strengthen integration between credit and noncredit
programs.
Faculty adoption of assessment in NWEP is low. This
can be overcome with intervention from leadership.
DMCCPA / T Tesfamichael, Doctoral Degree Candidate
To what extent is noncredit workforce education a
pathway to credit education?
To what extent does the involvement of noncredit
faculty in assessment design influence the success
of a noncredit program?
To what extent does noncredit faculty participation in
assessment-related professional development
influence the success of a noncredit program?
What is the best way to evaluate skills mastery in
noncredit workforce education?
What are the most innovative assessment practices
in noncredit workforce education?
How should accrediting agencies incentivize
assessment of NWEP outcomes?
Most of the respondents felt that revenue growth in
their noncredit workforce division has been flat
Course evaluations were the most common NWEP
assessment method, followed by licensure exam
results and noncredit enrollment count.
Many of those who reported revenue growth as
significantly better described “capture employee
feedback” as part of their ideal assessment process.
Of those respondents who reported improved
revenue growth, “skills mastery” was most
frequently mentioned as a key outcome in their ideal
assessment process.
Most respondents reported faculty attitudes towards
assessment are unchanged, with significantly higher
or better customer satisfaction
The most frequently mentioned key outcomes were:
higher licensure exam pass rates, skills mastery,
and job placement.
Overall high satisfaction coupled with slow revenue
growth could be an issue of higher costs or
decreased market share (e.g., increased competition
from online universities and for-profit schools).
Understanding the common assessment methods,
inputs, activities, outputs, and outcomes may assist
practitioners with improving program effectiveness
Course evaluations are an indirect measure of
effectiveness, where licensure exams are a direct
measure of effectiveness. Practitioners should use
direct measures as much as possible.
The average response rate for online surveys is 33%.
Due to the lower response rate, and use of purposive
sampling, the findings of this study have limited
generalizability to the target population.
DMCCPA / T Tesfamichael, Doctoral Degree Candidate
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
Director Dean Executive
Director
Vice President Program
Manager
Chief Officer Chair Executive President
# of respondents
Item #1: Participant Titles & Division Descriptions
Workforce Development Continuing Education Workforce & Community Education
Workforce & Continuing Education Corporate Training Workforce Solutions
Workforce Training Executive Cabinet Workforce & Economic Development
Continuing & Community Education Lifelong Learning Professional Development
Workforce Training & Development
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
# of respondents
Item #2: Institution Attributes: Course Offerings By SOC Code
Popular Offerings
0
5
10
15
20
25
About the same Significantly better At an all-time high Significantly worse At an all-time low
# of respondents
Item #3A: NWEP Revenue growth compared to past five years
Please indicate your workforce division?s performance in the following areas: Compared with the last five years, your
noncredit course revenue growth is?
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
# of respondents
Item #4: The Most common NWEP assessment methods
To the best of your knowledge, choose three methods that are most commonly used at your institution to evaluate
noncredit workforce education program outcomes?
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
About the same Significantly better Not applicable Significantly worse At an all-time high
# of respondents
Item #3C: Faculty adoption of assessment practices
Please indicate your workforce division?s performance in the following areas: Compared with the last five years, faculty
adoption of assessment for noncredit courses is?
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
# of respondents
Best way to assess noncredit workforce education programs: Types of outcomes
Item #5: NWEP Assessment Outcomes
Outcom
Effective leadership response strategies to internal and external crises: An evidence based research synthesis
No full textHow do crisis type and response strategy interact to
produce a successful post-crisis outcome for an
organization?Effective Leadership Response Strategies to internal and external crises: An Evidence Based
Research Synthesis
The Problem for Organizational Leaders
Due to the potential of a crisis to completely destroy an
organization, leaders must have the knowledge of the
impact that the type of crisis has on a response strategy that
leads to organizational survival. Such knowledge will
provide organizational leaders with guidance of those
leadership response strategies that interact with a specific
crisis type to produce a successful outcome.
Conceptual Framework
Organizational crises are unexpected, develop quickly and
require a leadership response in the absence of a significant
amount of time for research and analysis.
While the probability of a crisis occurring is small, if managed
poorly, it can threaten the very existence of an organization.
A successful response strategy includes corporate stance,
communication to stakeholders and action/reparation.
It is critical for an organization’s survival that the correct
leadership response, given a crisis type be initiated quickly.
Implications for Practice
Ann Marie Kaczorowski
The Graduate School
University of Maryland University College, Adelphi, MD
Crisis Typology
Research Question
How do crisis type and response strategy interact to
produce a successful post-crisis outcome for an
organization?
Method and Inclusion/Exclusion Criteria
Results
Some factors of leadership response are critical, regardless
of crisis type:
• Proactive communication with stakeholders is critical in
any leadership response to crisis, along with monitoring
media content and providing clarifications and corrections
• Communications made by the leader must be aligned with
the organizational stance, or can further exacerbate the
crises
However, stakeholder expectations of leadership response
to crises are different for internal and external crises:
• Accepting responsibility and taking remedial
actions/reparations meet stakeholder interests after
internal crises
• Denying responsibility (provided that is the truth), while
attempting to alleviate doubt about the future meet
stakeholder interests after external crises
O
Stakeholders: Employees, customers,
suppliers, regulators, victims, media
Product Recall
Factory Accident
Computer Hacking
Employee Lawsuit
Internal Crisis and
Internal Environment
Stakeholders: Media, government, emergency
workers, infrastructure availability, public
citizens, special interest groups
External Crisis and
External Environment
Natural Disaster
War and
Terrorism
Financial Crisis
Regulation
Litigation
Internal Crisis
External Crisis
Interaction
Successful
Outcome
Corporate Stance
• Apologetic/Denial
• Victim status
Communication
• Open/Non-existent
• Stakeholders
Action/Reparation
• Clean-up/
Replacement
• Victim
compensation
The type of crisis faced by an organization is important to
distinguish, as the delineation of the source of the crisis as
internal or external can have an impact on stakeholder views
and acceptance of the organization’s response.
Significant Literature
Pearson and Clair (1998) define an organizational crisis as
“a low-probability, high-impact event that threatens the
viability of the organization and is characterized by
ambiguity of cause, effect and means of resolution”, where
decisions must be made swiftly.
James and Wooten (2005) assert that leadership response
is especially significant as it is often not the crisis itself, but
the mishandling of the crisis that can have major
consequences for the organization.
Pearson and Mitroff (1993) make the distinction between
human-induced crises and natural disasters, where they
note that public perception is often more negative in
human-induced crises than in natural disasters, where
organizations have very little control.
Coombs & Holladay (1996) provide that the characteristics
of the crisis situation should suggest to the crisis manager,
the best response strategy or strategies to fit the situation.
UMUC One Source
Database
Other sources of
Literature identified
Non-duplicate sources screened for
exclusions
Exclusions: government/military crises, non-profits and first
responders, medical crises, and financial crises
Review of
abstracts
Articles retrieved – apply
assessment criteria
Inclusions: articles pertaining actual crisis case studies (qualitative) or
multiple case study analyses (qualitative or quantitative)
Exclusions: articles not pertaining to leadership response
Articles included in synthesis
Review of
articl
Service design for libraries: An introduction
No full textAbstract: The management concept of service science (SS), and through evolving customer service expectations are concept’s utility—indeed its emerging necessity—as an library users’ needs. The chapter is a conceptual one addressing approaches to building customer service systems for libraries, the why and how of implementation in libraries regardless of the community served—that is to say, the why and how of
implementation in libraries regardless of the community served. The changing outlook of customers and managers regarding commercial service expectations
business and management literature. Extreme customer service However, these service expectations can and have carried over into the public and nonprofit
sectors. This chapter proposes that libraries become aware of changing service utilize SD methods to meet users’ needs. Quite simply, libraries that do not investigate SD methods and implement community-specific design strategies, may begin to suffer patron
dissatisfaction and even lose patronage. Alternatively, libraries which do adopt SD methods, may see increases in user satisfaction and patronage. SS and design
subdisciplines of management studies. This, however, does not A broad introduction of the topics for library administration and planning considerations is warranted and necessary.1 3
Service Design for Libraries: 5 An Introduction
7
Mark E. de Jong
Library, University of Maryland University College, Adelphi, MD, USA
its origins in the business sector explored in this chapter. It proposes the administrative requisite to meet SS and service design (SD)
11
Abstract
13
The management concept of service science (SS), and
through evolving customer service expectations are
concept’s utility—indeed its emerging necessity—as an
17 library users’ needs. The chapter is a conceptual one addressing approaches to building customer service systems for libraries, the why and how of implementation in libraries regardless of the community served—that is to say, the why and how of
19
implementation in libraries regardless of the community served. The changing outlook of customers and managers regarding commercial service expectations
21
business and management literature. Extreme customer service However, these service expectations can and have carried over into the public and nonpro.t
23 sectors. This chapter proposes that libraries become aware of changing service utilize SD methods to meet users’ needs. Quite simply, libraries that do not investigate SD methods and implement community-speci.c design strategies, may begin to suffer patron
25
dissatisfaction and even lose patronage. Alternatively, libraries which do adopt SD methods, may see increases in user satisfaction and patronage. SS and design
27 subdisciplines of management studies. This, however, does not A broad introduction of the topics for library administration and planning considerations is warranted and necessary.
29 Keywords: Service design; service science; design thinking; customer service 31
33
I. Introduction
35
Uncorrected
Few would dispute that a shift has occurred in the American and global 37 economies. Indeed, reports of ever diminishing employment
is not disputed in the
has become a norm.
andnorms
relatively novelare
belie their importance.
in US-based
manufacturing have been common for decades. Quite presciently, Bell 39 (1973/1999) predicted an economic swing from manufacturing to services. That is to say, he foresaw the transition from the production of goods to 41 the delivery of services, and he began making these projections as early as
MANAGEMENT AND LEADERSHIP INNOVATIONS ADVANCES IN LIBRARIANSHIP, VOL. 38
r 2014 by Emerald Group Publishing Limited ISSN: 0065-2830
137
DOI: 10.1108/S0065-283020140000038003
1 the 1950s. The service economy refers quite broadly to the service sector,
which is one of three primary economic divisions. Somewhat more speci.
3 cally, the other two sectors constitute manufacturing and agriculture.
Information, knowledge, and the intangible exchange of these and similar
5 service-based resources have overtaken the once dominant tangible exchange
of manufacturing and agriculture. Service is now foremost in the global
7 marketplace and most companies realize this, even those focused on the
manufacture of goods. Indeed, the
(2003) reported
States’ gross domestic product.
Integral to creating a successful service-based
National Academy of Engineering that services made up approximately 80% of the United
exchange system is the customer service experience, is .nancial advice, employment brokering, or the like. This means may be insuf.cient to meet client needs. Even organizations recognized for the high quality of their services
acknowledgment of the signi.cance of the
13 regardless of whether the service product
assistance, social services, information
15 that simply providing a valued service
17 could fail if customers’ comprehensive wants and expectations are not meet. How a client feels about the service exchange process matters as much, or 19 even more, than the actual service itself (Katzen, 2011; Maglio & Spohrer, 2013). 21 One generally associates the economic shift and service focus with the commercial sector. Yet, the stimulus likewise extends to the public service, 23 nonpro.t, and government sectors (Clatworthy, 2011; Katzen, 2011). clientele become accustomed to tailored consumer experiences 25 ket sector, the demand for similar experiences in other sectors Moreover, increased resource scarcity began to manifest in the late 20th cen27 tury. This forced greater managerial attentiveness to products and services in all sectors. Pungitore (1995) noted and reported on this change in public 29 libraries. In fact, in some respects libraries led the noncommercial shift to a service-oriented model. Employing new planning methods to assist in ser31 vice redesigns and the establishment of service objectives became critically important to the Public Library Association 33 dual library systems beginning in the 1970s. Yet, a need to focus on services affects all libraries just as it affects all economic sectors. Public libraries 35 not unique in this regard.
Uncorrected
As
in one mar-
increases.
and priorities
and indivi
are
systems in libraries. All library services should be well thought out, imple39 mented carefully, assessed judiciously and frequently, and never set change in motion in an ad hoc manner, or without collaborative input from the patrons 41 to be served. Creating a service system is a complex undertaking, and
1 the service design (SD) process has a distinct methodology. This chapter will provide a rationale and overview for implementing a SD approach regarding 3 the modi.cation and creation of patron services in libraries.
The chapter has .ve sections. The second and succeeding section pro5 vides an explanation of SS—the discipline which encompasses SD—and SD overall. The third section touches upon service life cycles, SD principles and 7 methods, and the concept of design thinking. The fourth section provides
an example of how to apply SD in library environments, and lastly, the .fth the implications and conclusions related to the application of SD methods to libraries and library operations.
II. What Are Service Science and Service Design?
Before delving too deeply into the chapter’s purpose, some basic de.nitions required. as fundamental underpinnings for the
and sixth sections discuss
13 15
These should function
are
17 reader. To begin, one can de.ne service as an action, performance, or assurance that is given by a provider to a client in exchange for some agreed19 upon value (Spohrer, Maglio, Bailey, & Gruhl, 2007). SD is the deliberate development of a service, and it is an integral instrument within SS, which 21 is emerging as a signi.cant discipline within business and management studies (Bitner & Brown, 2006; Katzen, 2011; Spohrer et al., 2007). SS, similar 23 to business and management, is an interdisciplinary subject. It draws from computer science, economics, design, psychology, marketing, 25 .elds as appropriate. The de.nitive application of SD is the creation of a highly functional service system, which is a suite of services provided by an 27 organization. A well-designed service system interlocks various services when possible and as much as practicality allows. Ef.ciency, 29 client focus, and seamlessness are some of the critical designers strive towards in creating a service and service system. 31 Regarding scholarly interest, Bitner and Brown (2006) contended that business schools began studying services in the 1970s. Early scholarship 33 revolved around such topics as human resources, operations, and management, but the preponderance of efforts centered on 35 Interest in the services of SD quickly grew due to the growth of the service
Uncorrected
and other
organization’s an
elements service
service marketing.
business school curricula and scholarship existed to broach the issue. While 39 initially centered on human interactions, namely customer and employee contact, the study of services now includes science, technology, engineering, 41 and math (STEM) disciplines such as engineering and computer science.
1 Thus, SS’ interdisciplinary approach now ranges into the social sciences, the professional disciplines (particularly business and management), as well as 3 STEM (see Boudreau, Hopp, MClain, & Thomas, 2003; Choi, Nazareth, & Jain, 2010; Dong, Johar, & Kumar, 2012). Maglio and Spohrer (2013) 5 stated that SS currently “combines organization and human understanding with business and technological understanding to categorize and explain 7 service systems, including how they interact and evolve to cocreate [sic]
value”
scholarly perspectives multiplied.
(p. 1). Therefore, SS began its maturation with the soft skills and social sciences, but as interest intensi.ed, so did its complexity. In addition, The hard sciences and professions have has added greater insight to the contemporary
study of and practices within the services sector. SD theory and application has a similar historical provenance to SS. As
development positive customer service experience.
11 become prominent, which
was true in the early years of the study of services, SD, then and now, 15 focuses on the organizational/employee interaction with the customer. It is
the deliberate of a
17 Katzen (2011) offered a more precise explanation, “the objective of SD is to add value by enhancing the ef.ciency, effectiveness, and ef.cacy of older ser19 vice systems and to create newer ones with requisite attributes” (p. 43). While the SD concept predominantly originated in marketing as did SS, in
21 the early 1990s design practitioners and .rms began Artistic, creative, and abstract thought eventually took 23 tions such as the Ko¨ ln International School of Design (2013) and IDEO (2013) altered the conceptions of SD methods (Brown, 2008; 25 Proenc¸ a, 2010). In some of the most recent scholarship, authors have argued that service 27 delivery and SD now represents the dominant forces noncommercial service exchanges and business model
29 example, theorists such as Vargo and Lusch (2008), Voelker, Stodnick, and Wysong (2012), and Brohman et al. (2009) argued that service dominant 31 logic (SDL) currently dictates a successful exchange of goods and services. SDL theory states that the full customer experience, not solely the good or 33 service purchased, in.uences customer satisfaction. Moreover, it may be that the delivery of the service or good outweighs the importance of the actual 35 product or service in relation to customer satisfaction, that is to say process
Uncorrected
to come into play.
hold as organiza-
Kannan &
in commercial and
development. For
so doing, they affect customer satisfaction through maintained ef.ciency 39 and effectiveness via change management practices. Maglio and Spohrer (2013) and Sangiorgi (2011) have addressed this. Indeed, Sangiorgi 41 even theorized that transformational design—the next evolutionary step in
1 SD—goes well beyond the .rst order service modi.cations aimed at the
internal workings of an organization. Rather, satisfaction must derive from
3 “change that entails change in the core assumptions and world view of an
organisation [sic], companies need to change all the other levels, including
5 the organizational philosophy, mission and purpose, culture and core
processes” (p. 13). Thus, the goal is to facilitate change in communities
7 as well as organizations—an extension of customer satisfaction beyond the
corporate framework.
9
A. Service Design Methods
11
Building from the historical and theoretical foundations in the previous section, this section will focus on the most appropriate methods for designing services within the library environment. To achieve this, some of the more advanced theoretical frameworks noted above, such as SDL and transformational design, will not be addressed. This is not to say that there is no value
17 or room for them in library services. In fact, libraries may greatly bene.t from them. However, this chapter is an introductory one and therefore, 19 presents practicable SD frameworks regarding services and service systems (to a lesser degree) is the essential goal. 21
1. Service Life Cycle
23 Services, similar to organizations, move through various but predicable life 25 cycles. Katzen (2011) conceptualized six life cycle stages. Fig. 1 graphically represents the author’s structuring. 27 Service commitment refers to an agreement to provide a service, vices, to a client audience by a provider. An example could be providing 29 introductory web research classes at a public library. Service production pertains to building the infrastructure necessary to provide a service to clients 31 in a satisfactory way. This would entail .nding and arranging an instruction location, purchasing personal computers or similar technology, training staff, 33 and so on. Service availability relates to when a service begins to be provided, the frequency of offerings, for what length of time, and so on. Referring back 35 to the example, this could mean determining if is to be a .nite or continuous
Uncorrected
or ser
ductory class—and point of provider-client contact, also commonly referred 39 to as the touch point. Service analysis is the assessment stage. Thus, activities and costs associated with service creation and customer satisfaction comes 41 under scrutiny. The life cycle begins again with renewed commitment and
1
Termination
3
5 7
9 11
13
Delivery
15
broadly understands
and
framework.
the business model, which in turn informs the design of individual services. The principles are:
39
• service systems dynamically con.gure four critical resources for maximum service ef.ciency and 41 effectiveness, such as people, technologies, organizations, and information;
1 3 5 7
•
multiple stakeholder concerns in.uence the service and the service system, for example providers, customers, regulators, and competitors;
•
service value creation is a joint activity amongst stakeholders that is dependent on communication; and .nally;
•
access to and exploitation of information via modern interconnectivity is critical, as is the management of it.
A gap or restriction in the interconnectivity could severely devalue a service and weaken a service system. In non-jargonistic language, these four
principles simply mean that four resources are the fuel for any particular service—stakeholder individuals (employees, customers, regulators, and com
petitors), technology, stakeholder organizations (providers, competitors, and between stakeholders at all Also, cooperation and information sharing amongst stakeholders is
in tune with the entities create similar
regulators), and the information exchanged
levels.
essential.
While developing a business model might seem more commercial sector, libraries and other noncorporate
plans. However, they may not refer to them as business models. Moreover,
17
because service system modeling is not yet a common concept in any sector, it is a potentially more palatable synonym to those who are sensitive to
19
business jargon usage within the public and nonpro.t sectors. 21
3. Service Design Foundations
23 With the life cycle and service system tiers of structure 25 does one begin to design a library service? Katzen (2011) suggested four foundations of SD. The .rst, which seems elementary, explains 27 necessary to establish a context for the service. This can actually be dif.cult depending on the variability of stakeholder opinions. As Katzen stated, 29 you don’t [want] to solve the wrong problem at the right time or the right problem at the wrong time. This is as much a cultural endeavor as it is a procedural problem
31
Something that works at IBM probably isn’t going to work in Google. (p. 48)
33 This foundation challenges the library manager’s oft-used tool, the out-of-the-box cure-all, as inadequate. The second foundation is codesign. This
35 was alluded to previously, and it means that the client/patron not only pro-
Uncorrected
now in place, how
that it is
…
critical to success and a range of bene.ts are attributed to co-design” (Steen, 39 Manschot, & De Koning, 2011, p. 53). Third, access to, and the sharing of information is key. That is, to what degree are patrons willing to share perso41 nal identi.cation information with the library and what level of service is
1 expected in return? In addition, to what level are the library’s partners
willing to exchange information for the bene.t of the library user? Full dis
3 closure and cooperation may not be required. Rather, only the level suf.cient
to satisfy patron expectations is ideal and necessary. Lastly, the sharing of
5 information and communication between stakeholders should be continuous
and unimpeded between all parties. This ensures coordination among, and
7 ef.ciency of, the service network members, such as patrons, the library, and
library partners/vendors. This includes
foundation.
11
4. Service Design Processes
13
informal communication. Informal communication links are just as valuable as formal ones regarding this fourth
The speci.cs of the SD process actually vary greatly depending on the scope
to dedicate to the design, and the timeframe for actualization. Essentially, as noted above, what works in one
15 of the project, the resources available
17 library probably will not work in another (Katzen, 2011). However, Katzen suggested three general phases to guide an SD project. These are (1) inspira19 tion, (2) ideation, and (3) implementation. The inspiration phase includes the selection of designers, formation of 21 the design team, preliminary data gathering about customers’ behaviors, and scoping potential paths to improve or replace the service(s) 23 under scrutiny. The designer(s) can be professional service designers, a small groups of librarians and/or other stakeholders (such as
25 sionals, teachers, trustees, technology professionals, and similar), or a single individual. Yet, one or more team members should have some degree of SD 27 experience or knowledge. The designer or designers lead the team. Service consumers, that is to say library patrons, should also serve on the team. In 29 fact, representation of all service stakeholders is highly recommended as it provides the greatest diversity of perspective, and thus a greater likelihood 31 of comprehensive input and robust output. Early data gathering might be
as simple as direct observation of service consumers’ 33 interviewing, and analyzing readily available and aggregated quantitative data. 35 Ideation refers to more advanced data gathering and solution creation
Uncorrected
needs and
library paraprofes
behaviors, informal
viewing, focus groups, and surveys. Note that adherence to standard quanti39 tative and/or qualitative data-gathering practices should be maintained whenever feasible. Doing this reduces bias during analysis and the potential 41 of specious results and conclusions. Cooperative lateral thinking—group
1 critical thinking, creative exploration, brainstorming, and related mea
sures—refers to collaboratively generating likely solutions and working
3 through the possible pitfalls. The team .eshes out and formalizes previously
tentative design solutions, including the conceptions of short and long-term
5 success and the development of future trends.
The last phase, implementation, concludes the design process. Yet, one
7 should consider the phases as cyclical rather than linear. That is to say, as
implementation concludes, new feedback
may lead to another inspiration phase, which begins the life cycle anew. This ensures that services remain highly relevant to patrons and generate the greatest degree of service satis-
Early stages of implementation often include rapid prototyping, piloting, testing, and .ne-tuning the newly designed service. As implementation shifts into production mode (a middle to end stage of implementation), testing, or assessment, should continue on a regular basis as per the
11 faction.
15 service life cycle.
17
5. Design Thinking
19 A popular concept associated with SD is design thinking. While SD or SS often elicits no acknowledgment, the phrase design thinking 21 the lexicon of many employees and managers. Although, comprehensive understanding might be absent. In essence, it is a simple way to communi23 cate all of the points addressed above regarding SS and SD (Brohman et al., 2009; Dong et al., 20
How women lead: The 8 essential strategies successful women know
No full textBook Discussion: Authors Sharon Hadary and Laura Henderson discuss how they came to write this book, how their understanding of women's leadership strengths evolved based on research and experience, what strategies are key to women's success, and what continues to hold women back. They find that emerging research has the power to transform the conversation about advancing women in leadership from a matter of social justice to a matter of economic imperative that drives organizational performance. The question no longer is who leads better -- women or men -- but how to effectively combine women's and men's strengths to create the most effective leadership teams. This has implications for organizational leadership -- in practice and in education.How Women Lead
How Women LeadFounded in Research & Real-Life ExperienceSteeped in Inspiration & Practicality
Authors’ 20 Years of Research & Involvement in Women’s Global Leadership
Emerging Research
Personal Experiences
Interviews with Highly Successful Women
Women in Leadership:
Increased Profitability
Higher Performance
Better Problem Solving and Higher Productivity
Stronger Employee Commitment
These Findings Transform the Conversation!
In Business: Improved “Bottom Line”
For Women: Confidence to Lead from Their Strengths
For Men: Recognizing the Value and Utility of Women’s Leadership Strengths
Agenda
The 8 Success Strategies
Creating an Integrated Organizational Model
Implications for Education
8 Success Strategies
Lead Like a Woman
Own Your Destiny
Be the Architect of Your Career
Advocate Unabashedly for Yourself
Translate the Stories Numbers Tell to Drive Strategic Results
Create Exceptional Teams
Nurture Your Greatest Asset: You
Turn Possibilities into Reality
Foundation of Women’s Leadership
Women’s Leadership Strengths
Consultative, Inclusive, Collaborative
Create Teams
Results-Oriented
Decisive
Women Taking Charge of Their Destiny
Making It Work
Integrate Your Professional and Personal Lives
Invest in Yourself
Be a Change Agent – for Women and Men
Stay Open to Serendipity
Creating an Integrated Organizational Model
It’s the Numbers AND How You Use the Resources
Recognizing and Encouraging Different Styles as Effective Leadership
Creating Diverse Teams from the Top Down
Mentors are valuable; Sponsors are Critical
Implications for Education
Recognize Unconscious Biases in Textbooks and Curriculum
Using Up-to-Date Resources
Emphasizing in Curricula the Utility of Diverse Leadership Styles to Organizational Outcomes
Lead Boldly!Make A Difference!www.HowSuccessfulWomenLead.co
Promoting online learner satisfaction through appreciative inquiry
No full textIn online distance learning courses the satisfaction of the learner is not simply an incidental factor, but a significant aspect of perceived success. Learner satisfaction is the degree to which learners have experienced meaningful engagement with subject matter, instructor, and the social aspects of the learning environment; the degree to which they have realized personally significant peak-experiences and positive turning points in their learning. This phenomenological study considers an online course designed to provide participants with higher levels of positive orientation, encouragement, and support. Course design and facilitation utilized a philosophy derived from change management, specifically the principles of Appreciative Inquiry. Results indicate that learners recognized the instructor’s efforts to enhance satisfaction and that satisfaction played a significant part in their engagement and perceived success. The study explores learner experiences of satisfaction in the learning environment and suggests that sustained positive orientation of the instructor played a significant part in learner perceptions of satisfaction. The paper suggests ways in which online instructors can establish and promote a positive perspective within the learning environment.1
Promoting Online Learner Satisfaction
Through Appreciative Inquiry
David Starr-Glass
UMUC Europe
[email protected]
Paper (revised) submitted for the UMUC Provost’s Award for
Best Paper in Online Educational Research 2014
Abstract: In online distance learning courses the satisfaction of the learner is not simply an incidental factor, but a significant aspect of perceived success. Learner satisfaction is the degree to which learners have experienced meaningful engagement with subject matter, instructor, and the social aspects of the learning environment; the degree to which they have realized personally significant peak-experiences and positive turning points in their learning. This phenomenological study considers an online course designed to provide participants with higher levels of positive orientation, encouragement, and support. Course design and facilitation utilized a philosophy derived from change management, specifically the principles of Appreciative Inquiry. Results indicate that learners recognized the instructor’s efforts to enhance satisfaction and that satisfaction played a significant part in their engagement and perceived success. The study explores learner experiences of satisfaction in the learning environment and suggests that sustained positive orientation of the instructor played a significant part in learner perceptions of satisfaction. The paper suggests ways in which online instructors can establish and promote a positive perspective within the learning environment.
The learning space, no matter how thoughtfully designed, will only prove to be of value when it is populated by learners and instructor. The instructor will facilitate the learning experience within the boundaries and possibilities afforded by the environment. The learner, however, will actually encounter and navigate the landscape that has been created; it is the learner’s experience that will promote, or limit, learning. It is also the learner’s experience that will be remembered after the course has ended. For those who design and facilitate learning environments there is always the danger of misaligning the intended experience with what learners actually encounter. Despite best efforts, the learner may exit a thoughtful designed course, but having failed to achieve the satisfaction, peak-experiences, and positive turning points that characterize a rich and empowering learning experience (Kung, Giles, & Hagan, 2013; Yair, 2000, 2009).
The learner’s perception of satisfaction in online learning environments has been linked to a number of variables. Sun, Tsai, Finger, Chen and Yeh (2008) identified six dimensions relevant to learner satisfaction: student, instructor, course type, technology employed, course design, and the learning environment. Subsequently, they determined three empirical linkages between 2
learner perceptions of satisfaction and specific elements within these dimensions: (a) student computer anxiety and perceptions of the usefulness and ease of the online technology; (b) instructor attitude toward online learning; and (c) the flexibility and quality of the course, and the diversity of assessment.
Some have identified a positive connection between perception of satisfaction in online courses and social interaction (Alessi &Trollip, 2001; Cheney, 2002). Others have found that learner-instructor interaction, learner-content interaction, and Internet self-efficacy are useful predictors of online learner satisfaction (Kuo, Walker, Belland, & Schroder, 2013; Kuo, Walker, Belland, Schroder, & Kuo, 2014). Faculty interaction also seems to add value to learner satisfaction and may positively impact learning outcomes as measured by academic grades (Bedi & Lange, 2007).
It can be argued that the learner is entitled to a productive learning experience that provides effective knowledge-gains, but which also inspires and satisfies. Learner satisfaction, however, is not simply an “additional extra”: it is a critical element in student success. Generally, satisfaction has also been positively associated with course persistence and institutional retention (Aragon & Johnson, 2008; Bocchi, Eastman, & Swift, 2004; Hart, 2012). In online distance learning contexts specifically, increased learner satisfaction helps to alleviate isolation, disaffection, and persistence (Noel-Levitz, 2011; Roberts & Styron, 2010). Increasing learner satisfaction provides benefits everyone: participants involved in online distance learning, faculty wishing to re-examine instructional effectiveness, and institutions seeking to promote support and flexibility (Lawson, Leach, & Burrows, 2012; Yukselturk & Yildirim, 2008).
By itself, instructor facilitation of an online distance learning course does not necessarily result in learner satisfaction; however, the instructor does play a key role in the process. Instructor actions and performances – in terms of learner-instructor interaction, communication of subject matter, and attitudes toward online learning – can make a significantly contribution to the learner’s sense of satisfaction. This paper argues that instructor’s philosophy, perceived affective disposition, and presentation of self are all significant antecedents to quality learner-instructor interaction and engagement. These antecedents are represented by – but not limited to – a constructive, empathetic, and empowering instructor attitude that is clearly communicated in the online environment and which constitutes the basis for the facilitation of the course.
This paper explores an online learning environment designed and facilitated with a recurring and significant emphasis on positive orientation; an environment that was openly positive, encouraging, and empowering. The instructor’s projected philosophy and presentation of self were rooted in Appreciate Inquiry, an approach borrowed from the field of change management that offers participants within an organizational setting the opportunity to re-envisage participation, regenerate commitment, and experience personal satisfaction (Bushe, 2012; Cooperrider, Whitney, & Stavros, 2008).
The first section of this paper explores the origins and intent of Appreciative Inquiry. The second examines how an online distance learning course can be designed and facilitated using Appreciate Inquiry principles. This next section reviews the methodology involved in assessing the degree to which learners believed that their satisfaction with the learning experience was 3
connected to the instructor’s positive orientation. The fourth section presents the results of this phenomenological study, with a focus on the actual narratives of participants and their explanations of their experiences. This is followed by a discussion of the finding of the study and the conclusions that may be drawn. Since this paper seeks to provide UMUC colleagues and peers with a simple but powerful approach to increase learner satisfaction in the distance learning experience, the final section makes recommendations for online practice and considers the limits of the study and further research.
Appreciate Inquiry: Origins and Understandings
Appreciative Inquiry is now generally used to initiate, support, and manage change in organizational context; however, as the name implies its origins lie in organizational research methodology. The standard methodology used in organization research and management consulting has focused on identifying problems, recommending solutions, and evaluating the outcome of these solutions. Increasingly, however, researchers and management consultants have questioned what they perceive as an approach grounded in negativism and a methodology driven by fault-finding and deficit identification. David Cooperrider suggested an alternative way of approaching situations that recognized their positive aspects, generative potentials, and transformative possibilities (Bushe, 2012; Cooperrider & Srivastva, 1987).
Appreciative Inquiry (AI) is a broad approach that borrows eclectically from discourse and narration studies, social constructivism, and generative theory (Bushe, 2011). It provides possibilities for organizational participants to engage in open discussion and collaborative reflection. It encourages the emergence of excellence that is not restrictively circumscribed by the perceived “problems” of the past. Appreciative Inquiry invites those involved in the process of change to examine their organizations, communities of inquiry, and practices from a positive perspective in order to pursue transformative discourses that promote innovation and regeneration. Cooperrider was initially concerned that by defining a specific approach he would only inhibit the creativity of those involved in change management; later, however, he and his associates began to specify AI principles and practice in more detail (Cooperrider & Sekerka, 2006; Cooperrider, Sorensen, Whitney, & Yeager, 2001; Cooperrider, Whitney, & Stavros, 2008).
Cooperrider and Whitney (2001) set out five underpinning principles that support AI consideration and practice.
Constructivism. Our lifeworld is social constructed and culturally mediated (Gergen, 1994). Recognizing that perceived realities are social constructions suggests that future perceptions are amenable to re-construction. In utilizing AI, “the purpose of inquiry, which is viewed as totally inseparable and intertwined with action, is the creation of ‘generative theory,’ not so much mappings or explanations of yesterday’s world but anticipatory articulations of tomorrow’s possibilities” (Cooperrider & Whitney, 2001, p. 20).
4
Simultaneity. A regenerated future is inseparable from a remembered past: past, present, and future are simultaneously present. The AI practitioner needs to negotiate an organizational future that evolves from perceptions of a positive and valued present: “the seeds of change – that is, the things people think and talk about, the things people discover and learn, and the things that inform dialogue and inspire images of the future – are implicit in the very first questions we ask” (Cooperrider & Whitney, p. 20).
Poetic narration. Changing perceptions and behavior is neither spontaneous nor restricted to a well-defined trajectory. They have to be personally internalized and become part of the participant’s narrative of being. AI encourages and supports the constant revision, rehearsal, and re-scripting of participant narratives in fluid and poetically expansive ways. It recognizes that “the stories people tell each other every day, and the story of the organization is constantly being coauthored. The words and topics that we choose to talk about have an impact far beyond just the words themselves” (Bushe & Kassam, 2005, p. 166).
Anticipatory reality. AI considers that it is necessary to artfully reshape a new anticipated reality, rather than to conserve a known past. The focus is on what can be – not on what is, or what has been. Anticipatory reality acknowledges that “human systems are forever projecting ahead of themselves a horizon of expectation (in their talk in the hallways, in the metaphors and language they use) that brings the future powerfully into the present as a mobilizing agent” (Cooperrider & Whitney, 2001, p. 21).
Positive affect. AI places emphasis on the affective domain: changing how, and what, people feel. It links change to inspirational pathways that lead – in unique and personal ways – to a restorations of hope, positive engagement, and a sense of personal authenticity. Positive sentiment is considered the driving force in productive change. Positive involvement and of participant satisfaction often begin with the questions that are asked: “the more positive the question we ask in our work the more long lasting and successful the change effort …. The major thing we do that makes the difference is to craft and seed, in better and more catalytic ways, the unconditional positive question” (Cooperrider & Whitney, 2001, p. 22).
Although all of these principles are fundamental to AI, it is the last one – Positive Affect – that is most important to this study. Positive Affect in an online distance learning environment is understood to be instructor facilitation that accentuates a positive regard for subject matter content and which communicates optimism regarding participants and their experience in the learning environment. In this paper, this approach is termed “positive orientation”.
In the psychology literature, positive orientation has been defined as “an optimistic view of oneself, life, and the future is a basic predisposition allowing people to cope successfully with life despite adversities, failures, and losses” (Oles et al., 2013, p. 48). The applied psychology and organizational behavior literature understands positive orientation as a basic disposition towards self, life, and the future; a pervasive mode of appraising, viewing, and construing that significantly determines how individuals are predisposed to actions and experiences (Alessandri, et al., 2012; Caprara, Steca, Alessandri, Abela, & McWhinnie, 2010). It is important to 5
appreciate that positive orientation is understood in this paper as a presentation of self, a pedagogical tactic, and a strategy for achieving learner satisfaction – not as an inherent quality of the instructor or a personality trait.
AI does not advocate a simple reliance on positive thinking or aspirational rhetoric, but it does grant those in change situations the permission to move beyond the expected constraints, limits, and problems and develop alternative visions of what they want to be. AI is not unique in recognizes the power of social systems in reinforcing and shaping future performance. The early work of Rosenthal and Jacobson (1968) identified the Pygmalion Effect, in which positive expectations held by and about individuals are subsequently confirmed, even although objectively these expectations might seem unwarranted. For example, when the positive anticipations held by a manager are communicated to their protégés they often achieve higher goals than might have been predicted – higher goals that confirm the manager’s earlier expectations (Tierney & Farmer, 2004).
This seemingly virtuous circle can also be replaced by a vicious one, in which the communication of negative expectations leads to poor performance: the Golem Effect (Babad, Inbar, & Rosenthal, 1982). In both situations, predicted expectations become materialized outcomes, irrespective of any objective measure of the individual’s competency. Although self-fulfilling prophecies are not inevitably fulfilled, there is considerable research supporting their persistence and potential (Chang, 2011; DiPaola, Roloff, & Peters, 2010; Riley & Ungerleider, 2012).
AI has been widely adopted in change management. In education, it has been used primarily to change the organizational climates and outlooks of higher education institutions (Cockell & McArthur-Blair, 2013; Niemann, 2010; Shuayb, Sharp, Judkins, & Hetherington, 2009). A search of the teaching and learning literature indicates that it has not been applied to learning environments, although it has been used to empower at-risk students (San Martin & Calabrese, 2011), to explore the professional practice of lecturers in higher education (Giles & Kung, 2010), and to consider the transformational potential of prior learning assessment (Starr-Glass, 2012).
Learning Space Design and Research Methodology
BMGT 364 (Management and Organizational Theory) is a senior-level undergraduate course designed to explore management principles and applications, particularly in turbulent and changing times. The UMUC catalogue description indicates that BMGT 364 learning objectives should include a dynamic consideration of the operational environments of organizations and an exploration of the complexities of planning, organizing, communicating, and leading. By nature, BMGT 364 is expected to reconsider principles learned in prior coursework in a more complex and nuanced manner, providing learners with a deeper knowledge and more flexible approach to the practice of management. The course was conducted over eight weeks using the UMUC WebTycho online platform.
Learning Space Design and Instructor Facilitation
6
Appreciate Inquiry tries to include participate in the change process. In reformulating BMGT 364, however, it was considered that a fully inclusive process would be too time consuming: partly, because the course was conducted at a distance; partly, because it lasted only eight weeks. Working under these constraints, the instructor/ facilitator redesigned the learning environment using data collected from previous courses, which had included students with similar profiles.
The learning space was designed to provide participants with an opportunity to pursue activities that provided them with maximum satisfaction and peak learning experiences. Past experience indicated that BMGT 364 participants would be military service members with extensive prior experience including administrative, management, and leadership roles. Participants would be knowledgeable about management practice and capable of reflecting on prior experience. The design of the course focused on accepting learners as legitimate peripheral participants in exploring management issues, where “the central issue in learning is becoming a practitioner not learning about practice” (Brown & Duguid, 1991, p. 48, emphasis in original).
The BMGT 364 learning space used asynchronous conferences allowing participants to share experiences, contribute to active knowledge creation, and collaborate with other to confirm and expand knowledge. In designing and facilitating online conferences the model employed was that of the Community of Inquiry, which encourages the active display of social and cognitive presence (Garrison, 2012; Rourke & Kanuka, 2009; Xin, 2012). This approach allows participants “to project their personal characteristics into the community, thereby presenting themselves to the other participants as ‘real people’” (Garrison, Anderson, & Archer, 2000, p. 89). It was considered that this environment, with its associated dynamics, would allow learners to gain high degrees of personal satisfaction, self-discovery, and community cohesiveness.
Learning tasks and learning activities focused on the higher-level cognitive needs of learners, providing them with the sense of satisfaction, self-actualization, and social cohesion that have been identified as likely to produce peak-experiences and positive turning points. The learning environment was facilitated by the instructor in a manner that identified, reinforced, and privileged self-realization, knowledge gain, and participatory satisfaction. This involved sharing with participants the anticipated vision of the course and actively facilitating its dynamics to support this vision.
Learning activities, discussion conferences, collaborative learning requirements, and assessment tasks were designed so that learners could jointly create own meaning through constructive interaction with their peers. The design employed asynchronous conferences in which instructor-initiated questions were answers by participants. Participants provided comments, compared and contrasted these with their peers. Participants were explicitly informed that this version of BMGT 364 centered on cooperation, collaboration, and the sharing of different perceptions and experiences. The instructor was active as a facilitator in these conferences, supporting learners in their ongoing construction of knowledge, constructively redirecting misunderstandings, and providing ongoing encouragement in creating an environment that was recognized as academically challenging but personally satisfying (Starr-Glass, 2014).
More significantly, in facilitating the learning experience the instructor expressed a strong expectation that learning would be successful and enjoyable. The instructor deliberately and 7
consistently projected a sense of interest and concern for learners, asking them to consider the online classroom as a place for realizing peak learning experiences. The instructor-initiated projection of a positive orientation was constantly reinforced – in WebTycho class announces, responses to individual private messages, and in individualized responses to the pre-course Course Participant Surveys that asked learners to share prior online experiences and personal concerns, aspirat
The call center environment: The role of cognitive load and emotional intelligence in performing emotional labor
No full textCan call center managers decrease the number of steps in the workflow process, allow seasoned CSRs greater job autonomy, utilize dual modalities in training and coaching, and reserve emotionally charged tasks for CSRs with high emotional intelligence to improve the performance of emotional labor?Purpose
Three aims: (1) identify key organizational factors that
influence the performance of emotional labor, (2) examine the
relationship between the organizational factors and working
memory and (3) assess the effect of this relationship on CSRs’
performance of emotional labor through the theoretical lens of
cognitive load and emotional intelligence (EI).
Proposition 1: A positive relationship between mandated feeling
rules, organizational factors (IVs) and emotional labor (DV) exists
and can be influenced by differing factors.
Proposition 2: Cognitive load has a mediating effect on the
relationship between mandated feelings, organizational factors
and emotional labor
Proposition 3: EI has a moderating effect on cognitive load
thereby influencing the strength of the relationship between
mandated feeling rules, organizational factors, and emotional
labor
Implications
For Practitioners:
Practical steps can be taken to lessen the effects of cognitive load
on CSRs by:
• Empowering seasoned and high performing CSRs by allowing
greater control over tasks
• Utilizing dual modalities to increase learning when training
and coaching CSRs
• Simplifying the workflow process by minimizing the number
of steps and/or eliminating redundancy
• Exploiting the abilities of CSRs with high emotional
intelligence for emotionally charged tasks
For Scholars:
• Further research is needed on the effects of internal and
external environmental factors that influence cognitive
processing in performing emotional labor
• Organizational behavior theorists should consider cognitive
load in the study of individual behavior and performance
The Call Center Environment: The Role of Cognitive Load and Emotional Intelligence in Performing Emotional Labor
Linda Barthelus, Fall 2014
Dissertation Committee: Leslie Dinauer, Ph.D., & Laura Witz, Ph.D.
Significant Literature
Methods
Evidence-based systematic review with thematic synthesis
using an inductive and configurative approach
Research question generated main concepts
Keywords generated and used in searches
Results from Records Searched results Records from data SMEs
electronic from of electronic & mining reference feedback
databases websites hard copy text sections of studies (n = 1)
searches searches books found (n = 18)
(n = 676) (n = 22) (n = 11)
Records generated from preliminary search (n =728)
Results after inclusion/exclusion criteria applied (n=108)
Records after screening of abstracts (n =89)
Iterative process: quality and relevance assessment of findings
conducted using CASP and WoE appraisal (n = 72)
Total studies included for thematic synthesis (n = 66)
Research Question
Can call center managers decrease the number of steps in the
workflow process, allow seasoned CSRs greater job
autonomy, utilize dual modalities in training and coaching,
and reserve emotionally charged tasks for CSRs with high
emotional intelligence to improve the performance of
emotional labor?
Figure 1: Reporting of systematic reviews and meta-analysis flowchart strategy adapted
from PRISMA (2013)
Conceptual Framework
• Mandated feeling rules and organizational factors, i.e. low job autonomy, complex workflow technologies and constant performance
monitoring, create large amount of information and/or complex tasks for cognitive processing
• Large amount of information and/or complex tasks cause the working memory to become overloaded or cognitive load
• Cognitive load negatively affects learning and overall task performance and forces CSRs to sacrifice or dump information that may be relevant
to cope in pressure filled situations
• High emotional intelligence, however, lessens cognitive load and improves emotional labor performance
Cognitive Load and Emotional Intelligence
• Key organizational factors that drive the call center business
can also distract CSRs from their tasks thus negatively
influencing the performance of emotional labor
• When mandated feeling rules do not align with CSRs’ true
feelings, CSRs will often experience emotional dissonance
• The pressures of mandated feeling rules and organizational
factors can overload the working memory of CSRs
• The working memory has a limited capacity to process and
store information
• High self-awareness and self-regulation provide CSRs the
capability to understand and manage their emotions
• Empathy and social skills or social-awareness help CSRs
understand and manage their relationship with customers
The Call Center Environment
• The call center, a critical business activity, plays an integral part in all
industry sectors of business and allow organizations to generate, support
and retain customers
• Call centers are commonly viewed as modern day sweatshops where
employees are highly monitored, perform redundant tasks and have little
to no autonomy or task control
• Frontline employees or CSRs are the primary call center employees that
interface with customers
• CSRs are expected to engage their emotions in the course of performing
their job
• Call center managers dictate the emotions CSRs must feel when
interacting with customers to ensure customer satisfaction
Problem Statement
Call centers are utilized to capture and retain customer
satisfaction by requiring the performance of emotional labor
from customer service representatives (CSRs). Mandated
feeling rules and key organizational factors (i.e. low job
autonomy, complex workflow technologies and constant
performance monitoring) can threaten this objective by
overloading CSRs’ working memory or cause cognitive load
leading to poor performance of emotional labor.
Fiske, S.T. & Taylor, S.E. (1991). Social Cognition (2nd ed.).
New York, NY: McGraw Hill
Hochschild, A.R. (1983). The managed heart:
Commercialization of human feelings. Berkeley, CA:
University of California Press.
Russell, B. (2008). Call centres: A decade of research.
International Journal of Management Reviews, 10(3), 195-
219. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2370.2008.00241.x
Sweller, J. (1998). Cognitive load during problem solving:
Effects on learning. Cognitive Science, 12, 257-285.
Salovey, P. & Mayer, J. D. (1990). Emotional intelligence.
Imagination, Cognition, and Personality, 9, 185-211.
Major Findings
Emotional
Intelligence
Self-
Regulation
Empathy
Motivation Social Skill
Self-
Awareness
Figure 4: Concept graphic display the relationship between mandated feeling rules, organizational factors, emotional labor, cognitive load and emotional intelligence
Key Propositions
Figure 2: Graphic of location of working memory in human brain adapted from Figure 3: Graphic based on Goleman’s (1998) five components of EI at work
http://www.diabetes-warrior.net
Location of Working Memory in the Human Brain
Five Components of Emotional Intelligence
High Emotional
Intelligence
Organizational Factors
Low job autonomy
Complex workflow technologies
Constant performance monitoring
Mandated Feeling Rules
Poor
Performance of
Emotional Labor
Moderating
variable
Independent variables
Cognitive
Load
Mediating variable Dependent variable
Decrease
Effective global virtual teams: The impact of culture, communication, and trust
No full textThe purpose of this dissertation was to explore the impact of culture, communication, and trust on global virtual team (GVT) effectiveness.Purpose and Scope of Research
Purpose:
The purpose of this dissertation was to explore the impact of culture, communication, and trust on global virtual team (GVT) effectiveness.
Scope: This dissertation focused on scholarly/peer reviewed articles that were relevant to the topic and that discussed culture, communication, or trust, or a combination of the three as they related to virtual teams.
Effective global virtual teams: The impact of culture, communication, and trust Michael R. Keller Dissertation Committee: Kathleen F. Edwards, Ph.D and James P. Gelatt, Ph.D Summer 2014
1 Effective global virtual teams: The impact of culture, communication, and trust
Michael R. Keller
Dissertation Committee: Kathleen F. Edwards, Ph.D and James P. Gelatt, Ph.D
Summer 2014
Research Questions (RQ)
RQ 1: Do culture, communication, and trust, have an impact on global virtual team effectiveness? RQ 2: What are the components (barriers and facilitators) of effective global virtual teams?
2 Effective global virtual teams: The impact of culture, communication, and trust
Michael R. Keller
Dissertation Committee: Kathleen F. Edwards, Ph.D and James P. Gelatt, Ph.D
Summer 2014
Research Propositions (P)
P1: Technology is a barrier and a facilitator of GVT communication, cultural insight, and team member trust. P2: Culture, communication, and trust are important factors in regards to global virtual team effectiveness. P3: The components of culture, communication, and trust are barriers and facilitators of GVT effectiveness.
3 Effective global virtual teams: The impact of culture, communication, and trust
Michael R. Keller
Dissertation Committee: Kathleen F. Edwards, Ph.D and James P. Gelatt, Ph.D
Summer 2014
Significance to Management
For management:
As organizations become more global, they become more decentralized, make use of global resources, and have a need to communicate through advanced technology (Badrinarayanan & Arnett, 2008, p. 242).
Organizations have an increased need to create teams with worldwide talent.
4 Effective global virtual teams: The impact of culture, communication, and trust
Michael R. Keller
Dissertation Committee: Kathleen F. Edwards, Ph.D and James P. Gelatt, Ph.D
Summer 2014
Significance to Scholars
For scholars:
This dissertation identified three overlapping components interrelated with team member perception of effective global virtual teams: culture, communication, and trust.
It also highlighted the possible shift from the effects of technology on GVTs to the effects of social components in GVTs, such as communication and collaboration.
5 Effective global virtual teams: The impact of culture, communication, and trust
Michael R. Keller
Dissertation Committee: Kathleen F. Edwards, Ph.D and James P. Gelatt, Ph.D
Summer 2014
Key Authors and Key Theories
Grosse, C. U. (2002). Managing communication within virtual intercultural teams. Business Communication Quarterly, 65(4), 22-38. Jarvenpaa, S. L., Knoll, K., & Leidner, D. E. (1998). Is anybody out there? Journal of Management Information Systems, 14(4), 29-64. Maznevski, M. L., & Chudoba, K. M. (2000). Bridging space over time: Global virtual team dynamics and effectiveness. Organization Science, 11(5), 473-492.
6 Effective global virtual teams: The impact of culture, communication, and trust
Michael R. Keller
Dissertation Committee: Kathleen F. Edwards, Ph.D and James P. Gelatt, Ph.D
Summer 2014
Conceptual Model
7 Effective global virtual teams: The impact of culture, communication, and trust
Michael R. Keller
Dissertation Committee: Kathleen F. Edwards, Ph.D and James P. Gelatt, Ph.D
Summer 2014
Selection of Studies
8 Effective global virtual teams: The impact of culture, communication, and trust Michael R. Keller Dissertation Committee: Kathleen F. Edwards, Ph.D and James P. Gelatt, Ph.D Summer 2014
Evaluation of Evidence
(Sample relevance appraisal tool)
9 Effective global virtual teams: The impact of culture, communication, and trust Michael R. Keller Dissertation Committee: Kathleen F. Edwards, Ph.D and James P. Gelatt, Ph.D Summer 2014
Thematic Synthesis
This dissertation employed thematic synthesis, based on the stages of systematic review synthesis offered by Gough, et al., (2012, pp. 184-189).
This research method was chosen because it provided the translation and interpretation of the research findings, rigorously and transparently.
The three stages of synthesis used were: coding text, developing descriptive themes, and generating analytical themes.
10 Effective global virtual teams: The impact of culture, communication, and trust
Michael R. Keller
Dissertation Committee: Kathleen F. Edwards, Ph.D and James P. Gelatt, Ph.D
Summer 2014
Findings
GVT challenges included: team members’ ability to form relationships with one another, build trust, gain insight regarding cultural differences, create cohesion, and cope with language barriers.
Overall, the frequency of communication and socialization within GVTs was seen to increase levels of trust and to benefit task completion.
Social communication across cultures not only aided cross-cultural communication, but also helped reduce conflict and increased trust.
The research seems to be shifting from reporting on the effects of technology on GVTs to reporting on the effects of interpersonal and social components in GVTs, such as communication and trust.
11 Effective global virtual teams: The impact of culture, communication, and trust
Michael R. Keller
Dissertation Committee: Kathleen F. Edwards, Ph.D and James P. Gelatt, Ph.D
Summer 2014
Future Research Recommended
Identifying the social components of GVTs.
Exploring geographic challenges, including: local variations in technological capability, interpretations of meaning, cultural variations, and communication.
Examining the impact of culture, communication, and trust on GVTs.
Comparing various forms of trust in order to facilitate and use the most effective form of trust in GVTs.
1
Conflict theory of sociology and the education system
No full textThe subject of education is being pushed to the forefront of American society more and more each year. Since the days of our founding fathers, getting an education has become easier and easier with each passing generation. American society has overcome the idea that only wealthy, white males deserve to receive an education and readjusted to the idea that man and woman, blacks and whites and, both, old and young are worthy of the same honor. Yet no matter how far we evolve into a more nondiscriminatory way of thinking, education is still a means of holding the less privileged of humanity back, while, at the same time, allowing the wealthy and dominate of our ranks to press forward. The education system has been riddled with conflict, oppression and inequality since the concept of school was first conceived. These basic facts make it easy to assign the conflict theory of sociology to the social institution of education. Though we, as a society, are allowed to pursue education as a universal right, there are still limitations as to how and if we may receive it. Race, gender, economic status and age upon entering parent are determining factors in the level and quality of education that can be achieved in American society.Running Header: THE CONFLICT THEORY OF SOCIOLOGY AND THE EDUCATION SYSTEM
The Conflict Theory of Sociology and the Education System
Written by: DeAnna M. Majors
University of Maryland University College
THE CONFLICT THEORY OF SOCIOLOGY AND THE EDUCATION SYSTEM Majors 2
The Conflict Theory of Sociology and the Education System
“Knowledge is power.”
-Sir Francis Bacon
The subject of education is being pushed to the forefront of American society more and
more each year. Since the days of our founding fathers, getting an education has become easier
and easier with each passing generation. American society has overcome the idea that only
wealthy, white males deserve to receive an education and readjusted to the idea that man and
woman, blacks and whites and, both, old and young are worthy of the same honor. Yet no matter
how far we evolve into a more nondiscriminatory way of thinking, education is still a means of
holding the less privileged of humanity back, while, at the same time, allowing the wealthy and
dominate of our ranks to press forward. The education system has been riddled with conflict,
oppression and inequality since the concept of school was first conceived. These basic facts
make it easy to assign the conflict theory of sociology to the social institution of education.
Though we, as a society, are allowed to pursue education as a universal right, there are still
limitations as to how and if we may receive it. Race, gender, economic status and age upon
entering parent are determining factors in the level and quality of education that can be achieved
in American society.
There have been many historical conflicts in regards to the education system in the
United States of America. Some of the issues surrounding those conflicts have been especially
prevalent. Those prevalent issues are race, gender, economic status and age upon entering
parenthood . The issue of race is among the most talked about in regards to educational conflict.
The first public school in America was founded in Boston, MA in 1635 ("First Public School
THE CONFLICT THEORY OF SOCIOLOGY AND THE EDUCATION SYSTEM Majors 3
Site and Ben Franklin Statue" 2013). The likes of historical figures such as Benjamin Franklin
and Samuel Adams attended the school, which was not open to female students or African-
Americans at the time. It would be many years before anyone but white males would be allowed
to attend that school. The roots of the conflict theory of sociology are set in the concepts of
prejudice and discrimination. Those concepts, though not formalized until postmodern society
had become us, were the basis upon which certain people were excluded from educational
institutes.
The social construction of race is another responsible party involved in the oppression of
non-Whites within the United States in terms of being educated. Using the social construction
of race, prejudice and discrimination, Whites made themselves the dominate group in the
institution of education. This placed African-Americans in a subordinate position, disallowing
them from pursuing any form of higher learning. Events such as the integration of Little Rock
High School and the formation of the Tuskegee Institute show the lengths that African-
Americans went through in order to go to school and be an educated component of American
society.
Achieving an education has not only limited people of other races, but the pursuits of
women and girls. Evidence shows that girls in the colonial period did not attend school.
Grammar schools were constructed to teach young boys subjects such as math, language and
religion, but girls were almost always excluded from participating in school in all regions of the
country ("Education in the 13 American Colonies" 2011). Once again, a dominate group was
established with a subordinate group being oppressed and exploited. Even though compulsory
education became a legal matter in the mid-1800s("Compulsory Education" 2013), girls were
still limited in their participation. Gradually females began to be included as pupils in public
THE CONFLICT THEORY OF SOCIOLOGY AND THE EDUCATION SYSTEM Majors 4
schools but would not realize their full potential until the late 20th century. The push for females
to enter college is still a much debated upon subject. “Women did not begin attending college in
equal numbers to men until as recently as 1980.” ("History of Women and Education" 2007).
Though race and gender were important factors in determining whether someone was
eligible to attend school, economic status has become one the most detrimental of the
determining factors in present day America. The ability to afford college has become one of the
biggest issues in achieving a higher education. This leaves the most prestigious of schools to the
wealthy and the poor to either none or subpar standards of schooling. In a recent article on
CNN.com titled, “Rising costs could push college out of reach”, it is reported that, “The cost of
attending college has risen nearly three times the rate of the cost of living, and could eventually
put higher education out of reach for most Americans…” ("Rising costs could push college out
of reach" 2008). Once again there is the presence of a dominating group oppressing a
subordinate group. In this case it is not white versus black or man versus woman, it is the
wealthy dominating the poor.
One group of individuals in particular that have had the hardest time receiving an
education is teenage parents. Limited by proper support from parental figures and tied down to
children at early ages, the impediments facing the educational attainment of teenage parents are
astronomical. A study done by Joanne Brosh, Dan Weigel and Williams Evans in the Child
Adolescent Social Work Journal say that, “…only 10% of mothers between the ages of 15 and 17
graduated from high school on time, and estimates indicated that 67% of teenage mothers never
graduated (Brosh, Weigel, & Evans, 2007). The research also states that, “…relevant supports
and resources are needed to be in place to show adolescents that they are capable of reaching
their goals.” (Brosh, Weigel, & Evans, 2007).
THE CONFLICT THEORY OF SOCIOLOGY AND THE EDUCATION SYSTEM Majors 5
Speaking from personal experience, pursuing, much less attaining a higher education is
difficult. It is much more so for those out there like me who had a child before reaching the age
of eighteen. Just the day to day care of a child, when yourself a child as well, is enough to
prevent an individual from realizing anything more than a GED if they are lucky. I was fortunate
to have an insatiable drive to succeed and the support of a husband who wishes nothing more
than for me to achieve the highest level of excellence as possible. I faced many stumbling blocks
along the way including being held back by those who said I would never go to college, much
less earn a college degree. Now I am one and a half semesters away from graduating with a
Bachelor’s degree in History.
Putting an education into a person’s hand is handing them power. It is handing them the
power to create change in their life, change in their society and change in the world. The conflict
theory of sociology is based on the premise that the wealthy and affluent will always maintain
control over the poor and needy. Education is a tool that could change that. Having a more
educated society could tip that balance and create a more equal place for everyone to live in. The
difference that being properly educated could have in someone’s life could take the homeless and
give them hope. It could give a single mother the confidence to break the cycle of poverty in her
children’s and grandchildren’s lives. “Knowledge is power.” (Sir Francis Bacon).
THE CONFLICT THEORY OF SOCIOLOGY AND THE EDUCATION SYSTEM Majors 6
References
Brosh, J., Weigel, D., & Evans, W. (2007). Pregnant and parenting adolescents’ perception of
sources and supports in relation to educational goals. Child Adolescent Social Work Journal,
24(6), 565–578. Retrieved fromhttp://www.springerlink.com/content/1291013432v1017n/
CNN, "Rising costs could push college out of reach." Last modified 2008. Accessed February 9,
2013. http://articles.cnn.com/2008-12-03/living/college.costs_1_family-income-college-affordability-
higher-education-report?_s=PM:LIVING.
Education Bug, "Compulsory Education." Last modified 2013. Accessed February 9, 2013.
http://www.educationbug.org/a/compulsory-education.html
National Women's History Museum, "The History of Women and Education." Last modified
2007. Accessed February 9, 2013. http://www.nwhm.org/online-exhibits/
education/introduction.html.
Sir Francis Bacon, Religious Meditations, Of Heresies, 1597
Social Studies for Kids, "Education in the 13 American Colonies." Last modified 2011. Accessed
February 9, 2013. http://www.socialstudiesforkids.com/articles/ushistory/13coloniesschool.htm.
The Freedom Trail Foundation, "First Public School Site and Ben Franklin Statue." Last
modified 2013. Accessed February 9, 2013.
http://www.cityofboston.gov/freedomtrail/firstpublic.asp