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Global virtual teams: Trust and communication as facilitators and barriers to performance and team conflict resolution

Author: Ezz M.
Publication venue: University of Maryland University College
Publication date: 01/01/2015
Field of study

Global virtual teams are increasingly utilized as companies expand globally. These teams form and disband quickly, and as needed, once their assignments conclude. Global virtual team members use electronic media to communicate with their counterparts who are geographically dispersed. Global virtual teams are a crucial tool in acquiring knowledge and in organizational learning, especially in this era of globalization and fast changing customer needs and preferences. Global virtual teams face several challenges related to time, distance, diversity, trust and communication. Communication and trust are two crucial and interrelated factors that impact these teams’ performance and their conflict resolution efforts. Quick trust, which is based on the team members’ actions and behaviors, enables global virtual team members to start working together. Initial face-to-face interaction may facilitate the development of quick trust in these teams. Maintaining that initial trust is crucial as trust is the glue that binds global virtual team members as they try to achieve their common goals and objectives, while rich electronic communication media may facilitate and enhance such team effort. Global virtual team managers play an integral and critical role in the performance of their teams, and their involvement is an important component of these teams’ success. Global virtual teams’ managers need to change their traditional hierarchical management practices in order to ensure that these teams perform and deliver according to their expectations. Training of global virtual team managers and their team members on cross-cultural communications and virtual team dynamics is needed to facilitate the smooth operation of these teams, and enhance their outcomes.Running head: GLOBAL VIRTUAL TEAMS GLOBAL VIRTUAL TEAMS: TRUST AND COMMUNICATION AS FACILITATORS AND BARRIERS TO PERFORMANCE AND TEAM CONFLICT RESOLUTION By Mohamed Esmat Ezz Dissertation Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of the University of Maryland University College in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Management 2015 Advisors: James P. Gelatt, Ph. D. Kathleen F. Edwards, Ph.D. GLOBAL VIRTUAL TEAMS 2 Table of Contents Table of contents…………………………………………………………………………………2 List of figures…………………………………………………………………………………….7 List of tables…………………………..………………………………………………………….8 Abstract ………………………………………………………………………………………….9 Dedication ………………………………………………………………………………………10 Acknowledgement………………………………………………………………………………11 CHAPTER ONE – INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW…………………………………....12 Introduction……………………………………………………………………………………..12 Statement and significance of the problem………………………………………………………12 Global virtual teams and management challenges……………………………………………….15 Global virtual teams and trust…………………………………………………………………...17 Global virtual teams and communication………………………………………………..............19 Global virtual teams and conflict………………………………………………………………..22 Importance to Management………………….……………………………………...……..…….23 Evidence-based Management………………………………………………………...………….25 Research questions…………………………………………………………………………........26 Research propositions………………………………………………………………...…………27 Definitions………………………………………………………………………………...…….28 Organization of the dissertation…………………………………………………………….......31 CHAPTER TWO – SYSTEMATIC REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE ……...…...………....32 Research questions.……………………………...………………………………………….......32 Chapter Two layout……………………………………………………………………………..33 Theoretical lenses used in the dissertation………………………………………………….......33 First theoretical lens: The media richness theory………...…………………………………….34 GLOBAL VIRTUAL TEAMS 3 Second theoretical lens: The swift trust theory………………………………………………….36 Systematic review of the literature………………………………………………………………38 Trust and global virtual teams…………………………………………………………………...39 Trust and global virtual teams’ performance……………………………………………………39 Trust and communication in global virtual teams………………………………………............45 Effect of virtuality on global virtual teams’ trust……………………………………….............54 Swift trust in global virtual teams……………………………………………………….............57 Barriers to the creation of swift trust in virtual teams……………………………………..........65 Swift trust and normative action in virtual teams………………………………………............68 Trust and global virtual teams – Summary……………………………………………………..71 Global Virtual Teams and Communication…………………………………….………………72 Global virtual teams and the impact of electronic communication…………………………….72 Global virtual teams and rules of communication………………………………………...........81 Global virtual teams and communication breakdown………………………….………...........83 Global virtual teams and communication culture……………………………….……………..85 Global virtual teams and face-to-face communication………………….………….…….........87 Impact of virtuality on global virtual teams’ communication and performance…..…………..90 Impact of different ICTs on global virtual teams’ performance……………….….……...........92 Electronic communication and context in global virtual teams……………….………............97 Challenges and barriers to the use of ICTs in global virtual teams…………………………....99 Global virtual teams: Communication and knowledge transfer………………………...........101 Communication with team leader in global virtual teams……………………………............111 Communication and conflict in global virtual teams…………………………………............114 Global virtual teams and communication – Summary………………………………..............127 Dissertation’s Research Propositions…………………………………………………………128 GLOBAL VIRTUAL TEAMS 4 Summary of Chapter Two……………………………………………………………….........129 CHAPTER THREE – CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK………………….............................131 Conceptual framework………………………………………………………………………..132 The conceptual framework’s roadmap………………………………....………....…………..133 Theoretical lenses of the conceptual framework……………………………....………...........134 Graphical analysis and synthesis……………………………………………………...………135 Integration of scholarship into the conceptual framework………..…………………………..136 Summary of Chapter Three………………………………………...………………………….141 CHAPTER FOUR – RESEARCH METHODOLOGY……………........................................143 Overview………………………………………………………………………………………143 Research methodology………………………………………………………………………...144 Systematic review of the literature and evidence-based research……………………………..144 Evidence-based research and evidence-based management…………………………………..145 Challenges facing systematic reviews of the literature………………………………………..147 The Systematic Review Process………………………………………………………………148 Research design……………………………………………………………………………….148 The research design protocol………………………………………………………………….150 Topic selection, research questions formulation and methodology………………………...150 Setting quality and inclusion/exclusion criteria……………………………………………..151 Search and screening criteria and choice of keywords…………………………………….153 Application of quality appraisal criteria to the studies…………………………………….156 Thematic synthesis of the evidence………………………………………………………..158 Subject matter experts………………………………………………………………………..161 Inclusion of the expert panel’s feedback………………………………………………….163 Summary of Chapter Four……………………………………………………………………165 GLOBAL VIRTUAL TEAMS 5 CHAPTER FIVE – ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION …….……………...............................166 Introduction……………………………………………………………………………………166 Thematic synthesis of the evidence……………………………………………………………166 Trust in global virtual teams…………………………………………………………………...166 Swift trust in global virtual teams……………………………………………………………...168 Trust and communication in global virtual teams……………………………………………...170 Communication in global virtual teams………………………………………………………...174 Communication with team leader in global virtual teams (LMX)……………………………...177 Communication and knowledge exchange in global virtual teams…………………………….179 Face-to-face communication……………………………………………………………………180 Conflict in global virtual teams…………………………………………………………………182 Training in global virtual teams...………………………………………………………………185 Consideration of other points of view………………………………………………………….187 ICTs and Communication…………………………………………………………………….187 Face-to-face interaction………………………………………………………………………188 Conflict………………………………………………………………………………………189 Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………………...191 Summary of Chapter Five………………………………………………………………………194 CHAPTER SIX – CONCLUSIONS, IMPLICATIONS, LIMITATIONS, AND SUGGESTIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH.…..............................................................................................196 Introduction……………………………………………………………………………………..196 Conclusions………………………………………………………………………...…………...196 Implications for management…………………………………………………………………..197 Implications of trust in global virtual teams………………………………………………….198 Implications of communication in global virtual teams……………………………………...199 GLOBAL VIRTUAL TEAMS 6 Implications of ICTs in global virtual teams……………………………………………….200 Implications of face-to-face in global virtual teams………………………………………..201 Implications of conflict in global virtual teams…………………………………………….201 Implications of leadership in global virtual teams………………………………………….202 Implications of training in global virtual teams…………………………………………….202 Emerging trends in global virtual teams……………………………………………………...203 Increasing use of virtual teams in global operations………………………………………..203 Changing managerial structure and mindset………………………………………………..204 Use of ICTs to overcome communication barriers in global virtual teams………………...204 Use of ICTS to overcome cultural barriers in global virtual teams………………………...205 Increasing Use of training in global virtual teams………………………………………….205 Younger business people changing how global business in conducted…………………...206 Limitations…………………………………………………………………………………...206 Suggestions for future research………………………………………………………………207 Summary of Chapter Six…………………………………………………………………….208 REFERENCES……………………………………………………………………………...209 Appendix A: Search strings…………………………………………………………………226 Appendix B: Use of students as subjects the evaluation of technology and their potential to be generalized to work settings……………………………………………………………..228 GLOBAL VIRTUAL TEAMS 7 List of Figures Figure 1. Relationships among trust, communication, conflict resolution, and performance in global virtual teams……………………………………………………………………….132 Figure 2. Theoretical lenses used in the dissertation ………………………………………….134 Figure 3. Stages of the systematic review……………………………………………………..150 Figure 4. PRIMSA Chart……………………………………………………………………...155 . GLOBAL VIRTUAL TEAMS 8 List of Tables Table 1: The results of curve estimation……………………………………………………..59 Table 2: Regression on performance……………………………………………………….105 Table 3. Technology evaluations by subject type…………………………………………..238 Table 4. Means of technology evaluation by subject type and interface…………………...238 Table 5. Mean Group Cohesion Index by subject type…………………………………….238 GLOBAL VIRTUAL TEAMS 9 Abstract Global virtual teams are increasingly utilized as companies expand globally. These teams form and disband quickly, and as needed, once their assignments conclude. Global virtual team members use electronic media to communicate with their counterparts who are geographically dispersed. Global virtual teams are a crucial tool in acquiring knowledge and in organizational learning, especially in this era of globalization and fast changing customer needs and preferences. Global virtual teams face several challenges related to time, distance, diversity, trust and communication. Communication and trust are two crucial and interrelated factors that impact these teams’ performance and their conflict resolution efforts. Quick trust, which is based on the team members’ actions and behaviors, enables global virtual team members to start working together. Initial face-to-face interaction may facilitate the development of quick trust in these teams. Maintaining that initial trust is crucial as trust is the glue that binds global virtual team members as they try to achieve their common goals and objectives, while rich electronic communication media may facilitate and enhance such team effort. Global virtual team managers play an integral and critical role in the performance of their teams, and their involvement is an important component of these teams’ success. Global virtual teams’ managers need to change their traditional hierarchical management practices in order to ensure that these teams perform and deliver according to their expectations. Training of global virtual team managers and their team members on cross-cultural communications and virtual team dynamics is needed to facilitate the smooth operation of these teams, and enhance their outcomes. Keywords: Global, virtual team, communication, trust, conflict, performance. GLOBAL VIRTUAL TEAMS 10 Dedication This dissertation is dedicated to my Parents who believe that an MD is not enough………….. Mohamed Ezz GLOBAL VIRTUAL TEAMS 11 Acknowledgements I would like to acknowledge all those who stood by me during this long journey, and made this dissertation a reality. I would like to acknowledge my wife Soheir, and my children Mariam, Yousef, Omar, and Hana for their continuous help and support over the past four years. I would also like to acknowledge my parents’ support, and to whom a doctoral degree is the highlight of success. I thank them for always being there for me when I needed their motivation and support. I would like to acknowledge all of the faculty, staff, and colleagues at the University of Maryland University College who have supported me throughout my doctoral journey. A special thanks and acknowledgement go to my advisors Dr. James Gelatt and Dr. Kathleen Edwards for their guidance, motivation, patience, and encouraging me to do better at every step of my dissertation. I would also like to thank and acknowledge the members of my dissertation’s Expert Panel, Dr. Catherine Cramton, Mr. John Schueler, and Dr. Norhayati Zakaria for the prompt and valuable feedback that they have provided on my dissertation. Last, but not least, I would like to thank my friends and UMUC Doctoral Program colleagues, Wendy Washington and Joe Evans, for being there when I needed them most. GLOBAL VIRTUAL TEAMS 12 CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW OF THE RELEVANT LITERATURE “The evolution of communication technologies has redefined not only the channels of workplace communication but also overall workplace structures and organizational design.” (Kupritz & Cowell, 2011, p. 55) 1.1 Introduction The latter part of the 20th century has seen dramatic changes in the structure of work teams, where these teams became more decentralized, dispersed, and virtual, thus eliminating the need for team members to be collocated (Germain, 2011). Advances in communication have allowed people to “work together apart” (Lipnack & Stamps, 1997, p. 2). For the first time in history since humans moved into towns and villages, work is “diffusing rather than concentrating” as the world is shifting from mainly industrial to information-based products and services (p. 2). The advances in telecommunications and computer technology have made virtual teams popular in every field of business; in both the service and manufacturing sectors (Workman, 2010). 1.2 Statement and significance of the problem: This dissertation explored the role that trust and communication play as facilitators or barriers to global virtual teams’ performance and conflict resolution. This is a significant management topic, as faced with hypercompetitive environments, companies are increasingly utilizing global virtual teams comprising far-flung technology-connected members to counteract rapidly changing and turbulent global markets (Malhotra & Majchrzak, 2004; Gassmann & Zedtwitz, 2003). Effective organizations react to this turbulence by implementing quick changes GLOBAL VIRTUAL TEAMS 13 that help them gain competitive advantages, and counteract any threat to their businesses and operations (Beranek & Martz, 2005). Due to globalization, global virtual teams are now “commonplace” and their numbers are growing (Dekker, Rutte, & Van den Berg, 2008, p. 441). These teams often consist of members from different nationalities and cultures, speaking different languages, and having “different value systems” (p. 442), and who communicate electronically, and think and act in unison with the diversity of the global environment (Harvey & Griffith, 2007). Global virtual teams transcend time zones, geographical distances, and organizational boundaries (Lipnack & Stamps, 1997, p. 1) and may be assigned to complex strategic global tasks, helping their companies make and implement important decisions (Maznevski & Chudoba, 2000). Global virtual teams are assembled as needed, and their members may simultaneously belong to several teams (Malhotra, Majchrzak, & Rosen, 2007). Global virtual teams are usually culturally diverse, communicate electronically, and may be spread across multiple projects that may have “competing priorities” (Daim, Ha, Reutiman, Hughes, Pathak, Bynum, & Bhatla, 2012, p. 199), and may involve high stakes and high risks (Meyerson, Weick, & Kramer, 1996). Puck, Rygl, and Kittler (2006) noted that global virtual teams are usually composed of members with diverse functional backgrounds and that teams represent the “organizing principle in modern innovation activities” (p. 224). To succeed, global virtual teams need to be truly cross-functional, as such teams have a wider knowledge base and facilitate “cross-fertilization of ideas,” increasing the potential for the creation of innovative ideas and the development of novel solutions to exiting problems (Schilling, 2013, p. 263). GLOBAL VIRTUAL TEAMS 14 Organizations are increasingly utilizing global virtual teams (Cramton & Webber, 2005; Mortensen & Hinds, 2001) that interact through interdependent assignments, and transcend time, space, and organizational boundaries (Gassmann & von Zedtwitz, 2003). Kirkman and Mathieu (2005) described virtuality as the extent to which a team uses virtual tools to execute and coordinate its processes, as well as “the amount of information value provided by such tools and the synchronicity of team members virtual interaction” (p. 702). There are two main concepts of virtuality that characterize virtual team’s work settings. The first concept is the technology-oriented approach, where the level of virtuality is reflected by the frequency, amount, and quality of a virtual team’s use of electronic communication media. This approach is usually complemented by the frequency and amount of face-to-face interaction. The second concept is the system-oriented approach, which not only highlights the immediate interactions among the virtual team members and the quality of their results, but also regards technology as only one of the features of a work setup. Other factors are related to the necessity to communicate virtually, team cohesion, and type of electronic communication (Verburg, Bosch-Sijtsema, & Vartiainen, 2013). Three elements contribute to the level of a team’s virtuality: the extent of use of electronic communication media, the presence of para-verbal and nonverbal cues, and the degree of synchronization (de Jong, Schalk, & Curseu 2007). Global virtual teams may help their organizations gain global knowhow and knowledge, and may improve their organizations’ productivity (Pinjani & Palvia, 2013). Bertels, Kleinschmidt, and Koen (2011) argued that global virtual teams may enhance global innovation by increasing access to global talent, promoting closeness to local markets and cultures, and GLOBAL VIRTUAL TEAMS 15 facilitating knowledge-sharing. Furthermore, Salomo, Keinschmidt, and de Brentani (2010) argued that globalization with its extensive opportunities and extensive competition has forced corporations to capitalize on global virtual teams that possess local expertise, diverse knowledge, and talents to meet this challenge and achieve a sustained global competitive advantage. Symons and Stenzel (2007) found that global virtual teams may experience conflicts: “cognitive conflict” that may be regarded as crucial to the team’s performance, as well as “dysfunctional affective conflict” that was usually directed at individuals (p. 12). Hinds and Mortensen (2005) argued that task and interpersonal conflicts were higher in virtual than collocated teams, especially task conflict. In addition, shared team identity, shared context, and spontaneous communication moderated the relationship between geographic distribution and conflict. Since task conflict is more prevalent in geographically distributed teams, then minimizing it may be more crucial in these teams than collocated ones, and these teams and their management “may benefit greatly from more active management of conflicts that arise” (p. 303). 1.2.1 Global virtual teams and management challenges Industries have been shifting from traditional organizational structures to network structures that are based on teamwork and communication (Garrison, Wakefield, Xu, & Kim, 2010). This is a shift that “requires a basic reorientation of management philosophy,” and management needs to embrace the concept of “logically separating task requirements from potential task satisfiers” in order to attain the freedom required for such shift (Mowshowitz, 1997, p. 37). Accordingly, a change in management practices in terms of the set-up of processes and organizational structure may be needed (Malhotra et al., 2007). GLOBAL VIRTUAL TEAMS 16 Global virtual teams present both challenges, and opportunities for their organizations, which are trying to understand how virtuality affects team performance (Shachaf, 2008). Global virtual teams “pose a distinct set of management challenges” (Schilling, 2013, p. 269). Salomo et al. (2010) noted that managing glo

Entrepreneurial competencies of an economic and workforce development revenue-driven leader

Author: Williams Y. L.
Publication venue: University of Maryland University College
Publication date: 01/01/2015
Field of study

Higher education is the gateway to achieving the American dream and at the center of this educational opportunity are the community colleges. Their mission is currently at a crossroads of changing economic conditions and entrepreneurial responses to revenue growth. To improve conditions caused by corroding public investments, community colleges must engage in entrepreneurial endeavors that connect educational programs and services to revenue growth opportunities. This study examined the competencies, skills, and abilities community college administrators need to cultivate and foster growth in economic and workforce development initiatives. To explore how community college leaders might better meet this challenge, a systematic review was used to appraise and synthesize literature relevant to the identification of specific challenges and the competencies required to meet those challenges. Utilizing evidence-based research as a methodology for identifying, reviewing, and analyzing the literature available on this topic, the findings and recommendations were derived from sources that were determined to have validity and reliability. Identifying the competencies entrepreneurial leaders need to cultivate a culture of academic capitalism and engage in nontraditional profit-making ventures is essential to mitigate financial resources shrinkage. Team leadership, strategic leadership, and transformational leadership theories proved useful in creating entrepreneurial leadership and entrepreneurial culture.ENTREPRENEURIAL COMPETENCIES OF AN ECONOMIC AND WORKFORCE DEVELOPMENT REVENUE-DRIVEN LEADER By Yolanda E. Levell-Williams A Dissertation Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of the University of Maryland University College, in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Management in Community College Policy and Administration December 17, 2015 Advisory Committee Charlene Nunley, Ph.D. Ronald Head, Ph.D. REVENUE-DRIVEN LEADER ENTREPRENEURIAL COMPETENCIES 2 Abstract Higher education is the gateway to achieving the American dream and at the center of this educational opportunity are the community colleges. Their mission is currently at a crossroads of changing economic conditions and entrepreneurial responses to revenue growth. To improve conditions caused by corroding public investments, community colleges must engage in entrepreneurial endeavors that connect educational programs and services to revenue growth opportunities. This study examined the competencies, skills, and abilities community college administrators need to cultivate and foster growth in economic and workforce development initiatives. To explore how community college leaders might better meet this challenge, a systematic review was used to appraise and synthesize literature relevant to the identification of specific challenges and the competencies required to meet those challenges. Utilizing evidence-based research as a methodology for identifying, reviewing, and analyzing the literature available on this topic, the findings and recommendations were derived from sources that were determined to have validity and reliability. Identifying the competencies entrepreneurial leaders need to cultivate a culture of academic capitalism and engage in nontraditional profit-making ventures is essential to mitigate financial resources shrinkage. Team leadership, strategic leadership, and transformational leadership theories proved useful in creating entrepreneurial leadership and entrepreneurial culture. Key Words: leadership, entrepreneurial competences, workforce development, revenue-driven leader, economic development, entrepreneurship, academic capitalism, revenue generation, competencies, attributes, transformational leadership, team leadership, strategic leadership REVENUE-DRIVEN LEADER ENTREPRENEURIAL COMPETENCIES ii © Copyright by Yolanda Levell-Williams 2015 REVENUE-DRIVEN LEADER ENTREPRENEURIAL COMPETENCIES iii Dedication To my husband, sons, family, and friends, for you are my rock and unconditioanl supporter. May God bless you as you have blessed me. Thank you. REVENUE-DRIVEN LEADER ENTREPRENEURIAL COMPETENCIES iv Acknowledgments I am grateful for the people in my life who encouraged me to stay committed to overcoming any challenges and adversities. To my husband, Oscar, who supported me through the good days and bad days. He encourages me to persevere on life’s journey and because of him, I am a better person. To my sons, Demetrius and Kory, you inspire me to go to the next level and to make you proud. You are my heart and soul. To my family. A special gratitude to my mother whose words of encouragement and wisdom to walk by faith and not by sight resonated in my ears. And to my sisters and brother for their constant ribbing and unwavering support to strive for more. I must acknowledge my friends and colleagues, and others who assisted, advised, and supported my many endeavors over the years. You helped me keep perspective on what is important in life and have shown me how to deal with reality. I would like to express my gratitude to the faculty at UMUC, in particular my advisors, Drs. Nunley and Head, for their support, patience, and encouragement throughout my graduate studies. And, Susan . . . you are the best. REVENUE-DRIVEN LEADER ENTREPRENEURIAL COMPETENCIES v TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter 1: BACKGROUND AND CONTEXT .......................................................................... 1 Statement of the Problem ..................................................................................... 4 The Nature of the Problem and Its Significance .............................................................. 5 Financial Implications .......................................................................................... 5 Workforce Development Implications ................................................................. 6 Community College Leadership Implications ..................................................... 7 Theoretical Base............................................................................................................... 9 Team Leadership .................................................................................................. 10 Transformational Leadership ............................................................................... 11 Strategic Leadership............................................................................................. 11 Summary .............................................................................................................. 12 Definitions of Key Terms ................................................................................................ 12 Research Questions .......................................................................................................... 13 Summary .......................................................................................................................... 14 Chapter 2: LITERATURE REVIEW........................................................................................... 15 The Impetus for Profit Generation in Higher Education ................................................. 15 Trends in Budget Appropriation .......................................................................... 16 Beginning of Profit Generation in Higher Education .......................................... 18 Entrepreneurial Leadership .............................................................................................. 19 Entrepreneurial Colleges ...................................................................................... 23 Entrepreneurial college vs. academic capitalism ..................................... 25 Entrepreneurial Competencies ......................................................................................... 26 Entrepreneurialism in Community College Workforce and Economic Development Units .......................................................................................................... 33 Economic and Workforce Development Engagement ......................................... 35 Examples of an entrepreneurial workforce development engagement .... 36 Entrepreneurialism ................................................................................... 37 Management Theories That Foster Entrepreneurial Leadership ...................................... 38 Team Leadership .................................................................................................. 38 Few empirical studies .............................................................................. 41 Strategic Leadership............................................................................................. 42 Transformational Leadership ............................................................................... 46 Conclusion ....................................................................................................................... 50 Chapter 3: CONCEPTUAL MODEL OF ENTREPRENEURIAL ECONOMIC AND WORKFORCE DEVELOPMENT .............................................................................................. 51 Assumptions ..................................................................................................................... 52 Elements of the Conceptual Model: The Sports Car Analogy ......................................... 55 Funding Decline/Stagnation................................................................................. 56 Economic and Workforce Development .............................................................. 57 Revenue-driven Leadership ................................................................................. 59 Management Theories .......................................................................................... 61 REVENUE-DRIVEN LEADER ENTREPRENEURIAL COMPETENCIES vi Chapter 3 (continued) Entrepreneurial Competencies ............................................................................. 63 Revenue Growth .................................................................................................. 64 Summary .......................................................................................................................... 64 Chapter 4: METHODOLOGY ..................................................................................................... 65 Research Design............................................................................................................... 66 Systematic Review ............................................................................................... 66 Keyword and Search Criteria ............................................................................... 67 Databases ......................................................................................................................... 70 Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria ...................................................................................... 71 Inclusion Criteria ................................................................................................. 72 Exclusion Criteria ................................................................................................ 73 Hierarchy of Evidence ..................................................................................................... 74 Literature Evaluation ....................................................................................................... 75 Literature Evaluation of Quantitative Studies...................................................... 75 Literature Evaluation of Qualitative Studies........................................................ 78 Literature Evaluation of Opinion Articles ........................................................... 81 Summary .............................................................................................................. 84 Significance of Management Theories ............................................................................ 85 Use of Subject Matter Experts ......................................................................................... 85 Conclusion ....................................................................................................................... 92 Chapter 5: FINDINGS AND ANALYSIS ................................................................................... 93 Analysis of Feedback From Expert Panel Reviewers ...................................................... 93 Critical Analysis of Findings of Systematic Review ....................................................... 99 Key Findings ....................................................................................................................101 The Impetus for Profit Generation .......................................................................102 Research Question 1 ............................................................................................104 Entrepreneurial leadership skills and competencies ................................104 Research Question 2 ............................................................................................109 Challenges community college leaders face to introduce academic capitalism .................................................................................................109 Research Question 3 ............................................................................................111 Appropriate leadership theories for entrepreneurial academic capitalism .................................................................................................111 Unanticipated Findings ....................................................................................................113 Limitations of Findings ....................................................................................................113 Conclusions ......................................................................................................................114 Chapter 6: IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE AND RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH ................................................................................................................116 Implications of Findings for Community College Practice .............................................116 Entrepreneurial Workforce Development Proposal for Change ..........................117 REVENUE-DRIVEN LEADER ENTREPRENEURIAL COMPETENCIES vii Chapter 6 (continued) Recommendation 1 ..................................................................................119 Recommendation 2 ..................................................................................124 Recommendation 3 ..................................................................................127 Gaps in the Literature and Recommendation for Future Research ..................................132 Conclusion .......................................................................................................................133 References ...................................................................................................................................135 Appendix A: Feedback on Dissertation From Expert Panel ........................................................145 REVENUE-DRIVEN LEADER ENTREPRENEURIAL COMPETENCIES viii LIST OF TABLES Table 2.1 AACC’s (2013) Competencies of Community College Leaders ..................................... 27 2.2 Competencies Inventory .................................................................................................. 30 2.3 Leading the Transformation to Performance Excellence (LTPE) Transformational Theories ............................................................................................... 50 4.1 Keywords and Search Criteria ......................................................................................... 68 4.2 Literature Evaluation of Quantitative Studies.................................................................. 77 4.3 Literature Evaluation of Qualitative Studies.................................................................... 79 4.4 Literature Evaluation of Opinion Articles ....................................................................... 82 4.5 Literature Evaluation of Management Theories .............................................................. 86 5.1 Evaluation Forms Rating Summaries .............................................................................. 94 REVENUE-DRIVEN LEADER ENTREPRENEURIAL COMPETENCIES ix LIST OF FIGURES Figure 2.1 21st-century knowledge, skills, abilities, and entrepreneurial competencies: A model for undergraduate entrepreneurial education .................................................... 31 3.1 Conceptual model of economic and workforce development leaders’ entrepreneurial competencies needed to create alternative revenue sources in community colleges ......................................................................................................... 56 5.1 Competencies comparison ...............................................................................................107 6.1 Entrepreneurial workforce development proposal for change .........................................118 6.2 Implement a management approach to entrepreneurial leadership ..................................120 6.3 Lewin’s change management model ................................................................................125 REVENUE-DRIVEN LEADER ENTREPRENEURIAL COMPETENCIES 1 Chapter 1: BACKGROUND AND CONTEXT A recent article in the Chronicle of Higher Education (2014) documented 25 years of declining public support for higher education. The data on community colleges included in this article indicated that many community colleges had seen declines in their state funding by 25 points or more. Concurrent with this decline in funding, the American Association of Community Colleges (AACC, 2012) found that community colleges are being asked to do more to foster student retention and completion and to meet the workforce needs of employers in a difficult economy. Adding to the educational challenges facing community colleges, the College Board Advocacy (CBA, 2008) found that the U.S. population is becoming more diverse. These high-growth student populations, who comprise a disproportionate percentage of the overall student body, tend to begin their education in community colleges (AACC, 2013). They also tend to include ethnic groups who have historically lower college completion rates (AACC, 2013; Aspen Institute, 2013). As states see other demands taxing their revenues, it is highly unlikely public support for community colleges will change in positive directions. Competing demand includes student federal aid programs, increases in Medicaid cost, unfunded State pension plans, and implementation of the affordable care act (Lapovsky, 2013). The Center for the Study of Education Policy at Illinois State University (CSEP) and the State Higher Education Executive Officers (SHEEO, 2013) findings concluded that: Longer-term trends highlight the lingering effects of the last recession (December 2007 through June 2009) and its impact on the capacity of states to increase funding for higher education. Factoring in federal stimulus monies allocated to higher education in FY11, total state support for higher education in FY13 is 8.3% lower than the total 2 years ago. The gap between current funding and the fiscal support allocated five years ago is REVENUE-DRIVEN LEADER ENTREPRENEURIAL COMPETENCIES 2 somewhat greater. Total fiscal support in FY13 is 10.8% lower than total fiscal support in fiscal year 2007-2008 (FY08), when appropriations decisions were made just before the economic downturn. Higher education systems in 38 states are now operating with levels of state support that are 2.6% to 36.6% lower than the levels of support available 5 years ago in FY08. (p. 1) A year later, SHEEO (2014) findings affirmed that, although nationally the per-student state and local funding support increased, state and local appropriations remained considerably lower than the funding support allocations prior to the recession in 2007. Davis and Wessel (as cited in Zeiss, 2003) stated that community colleges, which are also known as “the great American aid stations of higher education” (p. 1), are facing a permanent shift from public-supported institutions to public-assisted institutions. Community colleges are struggling to find effective ways to fulfill their missions in this difficult financial environment. One solution has been to raise tuition. Since 1980, inflation-adjusted tuition fees at community colleges have been raised by 164% (Mortenson, 2012). However, tuition increases must be moderated if the open-access mission of community colleges is to be preserved. Therefore, community colleges have begun to seek aggressively alternative sources of funding to support their missions. Mars and Ginter (2012) stated: Entrepreneurial behaviors and resource-seeking activities across higher education were encouraged by resource dependencies created by uncertain state and federal appropriation patterns, relaxed regulatory and policy environments, and increased external pressure to contribute more directly to national competitiveness within the global economy. (p. 78) According to Deem (2001), entrepreneurial colleges create conditions for the betterment of the economy and community, a reflection of the mission of community colleges. Nevertheless, accepting the need to build a market-sensitive culture has been a sharp and agonizing change in philosophy for colleges. REVENUE-DRIVEN LEADER ENTREPRENEURIAL COMPETENCIES 3 The

Fostering Creativity: Adopting Mindfulness as an Innovative Approach to Managing Employee Stress

Author: Sand K.
Publication venue: University of Maryland University College
Publication date: 01/01/2015
Field of study

The purpose of this dissertation was to assess how the management adoption of mindfulness affects employee stress and creativity, and to evaluate the strategies in which mindfulness is cultivated. The following research questions were evaluated: What are the effects of employee mindfulness on stress and creativity? What are the most effective strategies managers can implement to influence the effects of mindfulness on stress and creativity? This study utilized a realist synthesis to conduct a systematic literature review of 25 studies examining the variables of mindfulness, stress, and creativity. The analysis and synthesis of evidence discovered four key findings: 1) mindfulness developed a cognitive flexibility that influenced how employees appraised workplace stress and perceived their jobs; 2) mindfulness was shown to be an effective strategy for fostering employee creativity through stress reduction; 3) mindfulness was shown to be a potential strategy in motivating employees to be creative through job satisfaction and work engagement; and 4) mindfulness is in the early phases of adoption and being customized to meet the needs of the organization. The diffusion of innovation theory, appraisal theory of stress, and the componential theory of creativity were used to evaluate the study findings and develop a conceptual framework which presented how employee mindfulness is a competency that can be managed. The management implications for this study included: 1) reviewing current stress-management practices; 2) assessing mindfulness as an innovation; 3) implementing mindfulness as an intervention; and 4) utilizing mindfulness as a competency. A new analytical framework was provided, which future researchers can utilize to examine the effect of mindfulness on stress and creativity, and the role that cognitive flexibility might have across these relationships.Running Head: THE MANAGEMENT ADOPTION OF MINDFULNESS 1 Fostering Creativity: Adopting Mindfulness as an Innovative Approach to Managing Employee Stress Kasey M. Sand A Thesis Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of University of Maryland University College in Partial Fulfillment of The Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Management Deborah M. Wharff, DM Eric B. Dent, Ph.D. May 01, 2015 THE MANAGEMENT ADOPTION OF MINDFULNESS 2 Abstract The purpose of this dissertation was to assess how the management adoption of mindfulness affects employee stress and creativity, and to evaluate the strategies in which mindfulness is cultivated. The following research questions were evaluated: What are the effects of employee mindfulness on stress and creativity? What are the most effective strategies managers can implement to influence the effects of mindfulness on stress and creativity? This study utilized a realist synthesis to conduct a systematic literature review of 25 studies examining the variables of mindfulness, stress, and creativity. The analysis and synthesis of evidence discovered four key findings: 1) mindfulness developed a cognitive flexibility that influenced how employees appraised workplace stress and perceived their jobs; 2) mindfulness was shown to be an effective strategy for fostering employee creativity through stress reduction; 3) mindfulness was shown to be a potential strategy in motivating employees to be creative through job satisfaction and work engagement; and 4) mindfulness is in the early phases of adoption and being customized to meet the needs of the organization. The diffusion of innovation theory, appraisal theory of stress, and the componential theory of creativity were used to evaluate the study findings and develop a conceptual framework which presented how employee mindfulness is a competency that can be managed. The management implications for this study included: 1) reviewing current stress-management practices; 2) assessing mindfulness as an innovation; 3) implementing mindfulness as an intervention; and 4) utilizing mindfulness as a competency. A new analytical framework was provided, which future researchers can utilize to examine the effect of mindfulness on stress and creativity, and the role that cognitive flexibility might have across these relationships. Keywords: cognitive flexibility, creativity, mindfulness, innovation, organizational environment, stress THE MANAGEMENT ADOPTION OF MINDFULNESS 3 Dedication I dedicate this labor of love to my wife and soul mate Lisa You are my infinite source of inspiration, and I would not be who or where I am today without you. You have always been there for me—I am fortunate to share this grand life with a woman who is beautiful across every fiber of her being—I am infinitely thankful for your gracious love, ongoing encouragement, and profound insight. I am proud to thank my daughter Harper You arrived at the perfect time and effortlessly provided a deeper understanding for what it means to be a father, husband, son, and friend. I hope someday my journey will inspire your own expeditions, you have so much potential—I revel in the pure happiness I feel each and every day in being your father. I would like to express humble gratitude to my parents Melody and Dennis Your unconditional support has always been there, as long as I can remember, which shines truth on how you can do anything you put your mind to—thank you for always loving and being there for your sons. I would like to remember by brother Christopher Your presence is always there, comforting me, galvanizing me to do and be more. You will forever be in my heart providing me the strength and courage to treasure every moment of life. You will forever be in my mind as I reminisce of the times we were blessed to share, such things are my most valuable memories. THE MANAGEMENT ADOPTION OF MINDFULNESS 4 Acknowledgements I would also like to sincerely thank my dissertation advisory committee, Dr. Deborah Wharff and Dr. Eric Dent, as their patience and guidance allowed for me to grow along with my research. They are both exemplary professors and truly understand the essence of what it means to teach—thank you so much for helping me learn and grow over the years. To my primary advisor Dr. Deborah Wharff, your reflective thoughts, sage support and never-ending kindness helped me traverse this program, to understand what it truly meant to be mindful, and to capture the spirit of mindfulness in a scholarly manner. I think the universe effortlessly implemented a grand plan in having us work together—I am grateful to have had the privilege to collaborate with you on such a noble and spiritual project. I would also like to thank the great faculty and fellow students at UMUC who helped me throughout the doctoral program. I am very appreciative of my Expert Panel, Mr. Todd Fancher, Dr. Brett Fenster, Dr. Haydn Hasty, and Mr. David Lane, as their feedback helped to improve my research in ways I would have been unable to achieve alone. I want to relay my appreciation to the authors who provided the raw materials and studies that made this dissertation possible. I would finally like to thank our dog Bourbon, who was always joyous when I needed to get away for a stroll, and to our cat Lestat, who was ever-present on my lap or keyboard, and provided a source of comfort during the long nights of research and writing. My doctoral journey can so eloquently be described by Souza: happiness is a journey, not a destination. for a long time it seemed to me that life was about to begin - real life. but there was always some obstacle in the way…at last it dawned on me that these obstacles were my life. this perspective has helped me to see there is no way to happiness. happiness is the way. THE MANAGEMENT ADOPTION OF MINDFULNESS 5 Table of Contents Abstract .......................................................................................................................................... 2 Dedication ...................................................................................................................................... 3 Acknowledgements ......................................................................................................................... 4 List of Tables ............................................................................................................................... 11 List of Figures ............................................................................................................................... 12 Chapter 1: Introduction and Overview of Relevant Literature .................................................... 13 Introduction and Background ................................................................................................... 13 Mindfulness.............................................................................................................................. 14 Mindfulness Meditation ............................................................................................................ 16 Creativity.................................................................................................................................. 18 Stress ........................................................................................................................................ 21 Statement and Significance of the Problem .............................................................................. 22 Study Purpose and Research Questions .................................................................................... 25 Importance to Management ...................................................................................................... 27 Managers. .............................................................................................................................. 28 Employees. ............................................................................................................................ 29 Organizations. ........................................................................................................................ 31 Definitions of Terms ................................................................................................................. 33 Summary .................................................................................................................................. 35 THE MANAGEMENT ADOPTION OF MINDFULNESS 6 Chapter 2: Methodology .............................................................................................................. 38 Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 38 Evidence-Based Research and Management ............................................................................ 38 Systematic Reviews .................................................................................................................. 41 Realist Synthesis ....................................................................................................................... 42 Identifying the review question. ............................................................................................ 44 Searching for studies. ............................................................................................................ 45 Quality appraisal. ................................................................................................................... 46 Extracting the data. ................................................................................................................ 47 Synthesizing the data. ............................................................................................................ 48 Disseminating the findings. ................................................................................................... 49 Presentation and discussion of expert panel. ......................................................................... 50 Summary .................................................................................................................................. 54 Chapter 3: Systematic Review of the Literature .......................................................................... 55 Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 55 Identification and Discussion of the Theoretical Lenses .......................................................... 56 Diffusion of innovation theory. ............................................................................................. 57 Appraisal theory of stress. ..................................................................................................... 60 Componential theory of creativity. ........................................................................................ 66 Critical Review and Evaluation of the Literature ..................................................................... 72 THE MANAGEMENT ADOPTION OF MINDFULNESS 7 Mindfulness and stress........................................................................................................... 73 Mindfulness, stress, and components of creativity. ............................................................... 94 Mindfulness and components of creativity. ...................................................................... 95 Stress and creativity. ....................................................................................................... 111 Summary ................................................................................................................................ 116 Chapter 4: Analysis and Discussion .......................................................................................... 118 Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 118 Presentation, Summary, and Analysis of the Findings ........................................................... 119 Research question RQ1: What are the effects of employee mindfulness on stress and creativity? ............................................................................................................................ 122 Finding F1: Mindfulness develops a cognitive flexibility that influences how employees appraise workplace stress and perceive their jobs. ......................................................... 122 Finding F2: Mindfulness was shown to be an effective strategy for fostering employee creativity through stress reduction. ................................................................................. 126 Finding F3: Mindfulness was shown to be a potential strategy in motivating employees to be creative through job satisfaction and work engagement. ....................................... 132 Summary for RQ1. .......................................................................................................... 135 Research question RQ2: What are the most effective strategies managers can implement to influence the effects of mindfulness on stress and creativity? ............................................ 136 Finding F4: Mindfulness is in the early phases of adoption and being customized to meet the needs of the organization. ......................................................................................... 136 THE MANAGEMENT ADOPTION OF MINDFULNESS 8 Summary for RQ2. .......................................................................................................... 141 Conclusions ............................................................................................................................. 141 Alternative Perspectives.......................................................................................................... 143 Summary ................................................................................................................................ 146 Chapter 5: Conceptual Framework ............................................................................................ 147 Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 147 Review of Research Questions and Findings.......................................................................... 147 Mindfulness as a Competency ................................................................................................ 149 Summary ................................................................................................................................ 160 Chapter 6: Conclusions, Implications, and Trends .................................................................... 161 Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 161 Overall Conclusions ................................................................................................................ 162 Implications for the Management Practitioner ....................................................................... 164 Reviewing current stress-management practices. ................................................................ 164 Assessing mindfulness as an innovation. ............................................................................ 166 Relative advantage. ......................................................................................................... 166 Compatibility. ................................................................................................................. 167 Complexity. ..................................................................................................................... 168 Testability and observability. .......................................................................................... 169 Implementing mindfulness as an intervention. .................................................................... 170 THE MANAGEMENT ADOPTION OF MINDFULNESS 9 Reduce program duration. ............................................................................................... 171 Reduce daily mindfulness meditation practice time. ...................................................... 171 Reduce the amount of group sessions and retreats. ........................................................ 172 Provide a flexible method of delivery. ............................................................................ 172 Utilize a MBSR-certified or experienced instructor. ...................................................... 173 Keep the training focused and monitor results. .............................................................. 174 Label the training to align with the context of the organization. .................................... 174 Utilizing mindfulness as a competency. .............................................................................. 176 Promote a culture of mindfulness. .................................................................................. 176 Monitor employee stress. ................................................................................................ 177 Discuss how mindfulness pertains to creativity. ............................................................. 177 Implications for Emerging Trends .......................................................................................... 178 Technology and virtual interaction. ..................................................................................... 178 Globalization. ...................................................................................................................... 179 Sociocultural shifts. ............................................................................................................. 179 Legislation and ethics. ......................................................................................................... 180 Limitations .............................................................................................................................. 181 Areas for Future Research ...................................................................................................... 183 Summary ................................................................................................................................ 189 References .................................................................................................................................. 192 THE MANAGEMENT ADOPTION OF MINDFULNESS 10 Appendix A: PRISMA Diagram ................................................................................................ 220 Appendix B: Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria .......................................................................... 222 Appendix C: Quality Assessment Tools .................................................................................... 223 Appendix D: Data Extraction Tool ............................................................................................ 225 Appendix E: Subject Matter Expert Feedback........................................................................... 226 Appendix F: Mindfulness Based Stress Reduction Program Overview .................................... 238 Appendix G: Measurement Instruments .................................................................................... 239 Appendix H: Detailed Tables of Findings ................................................................................. 242 THE MANAGEMENT ADOPTION OF MINDFULNESS 11 List of Tables Table 1. Expert Panel Members ..........................................

The call center environment: The effect of cognitive load on emotional labor

Author: Barthelus L.
Publication venue: University of Maryland University College
Publication date: 01/01/2015
Field of study

Call centers enable organizations to achieve customer satisfaction by requiring their customer service representatives (CSRs) to invest their emotions into their work. Much of the extant research on emotional labor within the call center environment focuses on emotion management strategies (e.g., surface and deep acting). This dissertation emphasizes the internal threats to cognitive processes related to performing emotional labor, in order to achieve three specific aims. First, identify key organizational factors that influence the performance of emotional labor. Second, examine the relationship between the organizational factors and cognitive overload; and third, assess the effect of this relationship on CSRs' performance of emotional labor through the theoretical lens of cognitive load and emotional intelligence (EI). A systematic review of primary literature and a thematic synthesis of the findings was applied using an inductive and configuration approach. The study findings indicate that organizational factors (i.e., mandated feeling rules, low job autonomy, complex workflow technologies, and constant performance monitoring) can overload CSRs' cognitive processes, leading to poor performance of emotional labor. CSRs with high EI, however, were found better able to respond to negative external stimuli thus lessening their cognitive overload and positively affecting emotional labor performance. Based on these findings, actionable measures are proposed to address the challenges of cognitive overload on CSRs. These measures include allowing greater job autonomy for seasoned CSRs and maximizing the abilities of CSRs with high EI for emotionally charged tasks.CALL CENTER ENVIRONMENT: COGNITIVE LOAD AND EMOTIONAL LABOR 1 The Call Center Environment: The Effect of Cognitive Load on Emotional Labor Linda Barthelus A Dissertation Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of University of Maryland University College In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctorate of Management April 2015 Dissertation Committee: Leslie Dinauer, Ph.D. Laura Witz, Ph.D. CALL CENTER ENVIRONMENT: COGNITIVE LOAD AND EMOTIONAL LABOR 2 Acknowledgements I would like to express my gratitude to several individuals who helped make this dissertation a reality. I want to thank my manager, Dr. George Gabriel, who first planted the seed in my mind to pursue a doctorate and afforded me the flexibility to successfully complete the program. I want to express my gratitude to the four subject matter experts: Ms. Terri Britt; Ms. Pamela McCray; Ms. Dru Phelps; and Ms. Rae Smith-Watson. They each took the time to review my work early on and share unique perspectives to strengthen this dissertation. A special thank you to Ms. Dru Phelps who provided detailed and insightful feedback on the call center industry which helped me structure the dissertation in its initial stages. I would also like to thank my dissertation advisors, Drs. Laura Witz and Leslie Dinauer. Thank you very much for the tough and often frightening yet necessary feedback throughout the dissertation process and DM program. I am proud to have been under their tutelage and will always remember the guidance and encouragement I received to earn this degree. Finally, a special thank you to the best cohort ever. I remember starting the DM program in 2011 both nervous and excited, and now will be graduating together with many of them. A heart-warming thank you to Janna Witherell, Moronke Oshin-Martin, Eddie Montgomery and Thamara Barthelus (my sister) for the constant encouragement and the team effort in completing the seemingly endless assignments. CALL CENTER ENVIRONMENT: COGNITIVE LOAD AND EMOTIONAL LABOR 3 Dedication I dedicate this dissertation to my parents, Joseph and Ruth Barthelus, both of whom have taught me the importance of hard work, the value of an education, and more significantly imparted the importance of putting my faith in Jesus Christ, a constant and reliable source of spiritual strength especially during the dissertation journey. And to my five sisters and four nephews...thank you for your prayers and encouragement along the way. CALL CENTER ENVIRONMENT: COGNITIVE LOAD AND EMOTIONAL LABOR 4 Table of Contents Acknowledgement ...............................................................................................................2 Dedication... .........................................................................................................................3 List of Figures ......................................................................................................................6 List of Tables .......................................................................................................................7 Abstract ...............................................................................................................................8 Chapter 1: Introduction ........................................................................................................9 Problem Statement .................................................................................................20 Purpose of Study ....................................................................................................21 Importance to Management ...................................................................................22 Research Question .................................................................................................23 Definitions..............................................................................................................23 Organization of Dissertation ..................................................................................25 Chapter 2: Scoping Literature Review ...............................................................................26 The Role of Cognitive Load .................................................................................27 Emotion and Emotional Labor ...............................................................................31 Influence of Organizational Factors on Emotional Labor .....................................40 The Role of Emotional Intelligence .......................................................................55 Chapter 3: Methodology ....................................................................................................65 Chapter 4: Results, Discussion and Implications ...............................................................86 Chapter 5: Conceptual Framework ....................................................................................96 Chapter 6: Practical Recommendation...............................................................................98 References ........................................................................................................................105 CALL CENTER ENVIRONMENT: COGNITIVE LOAD AND EMOTIONAL LABOR 5 Appendices .......................................................................................................................115 Appendix A: Table of Search Categories and the Search Strings Used ..............115 Appendix B: Table of the 18 Databases Accessed ..............................................117 Appendix C: Table of 57 Journals Used in Study................................................118 Appendix D: Table of CASP Screening Quality Questions ................................121 Appendix E: SMEs Names and Biographies .......................................................122 Appendix F: Survey Responses on Dissertation Topic’s Relevancy and Practicality from Subject Matter Experts (SMEs) ...................................123 CALL CENTER ENVIRONMENT: COGNITIVE LOAD AND EMOTIONAL LABOR 6 List of Figures Figure 1: Example of a typical call center .......................................................................11 Figure 2: Example of a panopticon tower within a prison building ................................18 Figure 3: Infographic of Zajonc Affective Primacy theory .............................................34 Figure 4: The relationship between organizational factors and emotional labor ............41 Figure 5: A sample chat interaction between a supervisor and a CSR ............................49 Figure 6: A sample call evaluation form .........................................................................50 Figure 7: The ‘qualictivity’ graph. ..................................................................................52 Figure 8: ACD employee work performance statistics ...................................................53 Figure 9: Graphic based on Goleman’s (1998) five components of EI at work..............59 Figure 10: The relationship between self-awareness, self-regulation and ability to manage one’s emotions ....................................................................................60 Figure 11: Dynamic relationship between evidence review, synthesis and evidence-based decision-making .....................................................................................66 Figure 12: Systematic review flowchart strategy adapted from PRISMA (2013) .............69 Figure 13: The stages in the thematic synthesis process....................................................83 Figure 14: Concept model displaying the relationship among organizational factors, cognitive load, emotional labor and EI ............................................................97 CALL CENTER ENVIRONMENT: COGNITIVE LOAD AND EMOTIONAL LABOR 7 List of Tables Table 1: Example of search strings used............................................................................70 Table 2: Translation in terms of criteria for qualitative and quantitative research ............73 Table 3: Sample assessment of a study using CASP appraisal tool ..................................75 Table 4: Extraction of data .................................................................................................77 Table 5: Lists of eight descriptive themes .........................................................................80 Table 6: Cognitive Overload Reduction Plan ..................................................................102 CALL CENTER ENVIRONMENT: COGNITIVE LOAD AND EMOTIONAL LABOR 8 The Call Center Environment: The Effect of Cognitive Load on Emotional Labor Abstract Call centers enable organizations to achieve customer satisfaction by requiring their customer service representatives (CSRs) to invest their emotions into their work. Much of the extant research on emotional labor within the call center environment focuses on emotion management strategies (e.g., surface and deep acting). This dissertation emphasizes the internal threats to cognitive processes related to performing emotional labor, in order to achieve three specific aims. First, identify key organizational factors that influence the performance of emotional labor. Second, examine the relationship between the organizational factors and cognitive overload; and third, assess the effect of this relationship on CSRs’ performance of emotional labor through the theoretical lens of cognitive load and emotional intelligence (EI). A systematic review of primary literature and a thematic synthesis of the findings was applied using an inductive and configuration approach. The study findings indicate that organizational factors (i.e., mandated feeling rules, low job autonomy, complex workflow technologies, and constant performance monitoring) can overload CSRs’ cognitive processes, leading to poor performance of emotional labor. CSRs with high EI, however, were found better able to respond to negative external stimuli thus lessening their cognitive overload and positively affecting emotional labor performance. Based on these findings, actionable measures are proposed to address the challenges of cognitive overload on CSRs. These measures include allowing greater job autonomy for seasoned CSRs and maximizing the abilities of CSRs with high EI for emotionally charged tasks. Keywords: Organizational factors, call center employees, cognitive load, emotional labor, emotional intelligence and customer satisfaction CALL CENTER ENVIRONMENT: COGNITIVE LOAD AND EMOTIONAL LABOR 9 Chapter 1: Introduction “I suffer from mental fatigue; your brain gets overloaded. Although taking enquiries is not necessarily a difficult job, it is when you get all these culminating factors coming through, mostly the repetitiveness, call after call, and you get annoyed about something and you just think ‘no’! . . . As a home insurance advisor, I use the same script, so you do the same thing every day, repeating the same things, asking the same questions, getting the same answers back” (Taylor & Bain, 1999, p. 109). The above excerpt is taken from the statement of a home insurance advisor who participated in a study that focused on the mental stress and emotional exhaustion employees commonly face within service industries. The excerpt provides the origin of the management problem that this dissertation addresses within the call center environment. This chapter begins by exploring the call center environment, followed by the problem statement and the purpose of this dissertation. Following a discussion on the significance of the study for management, the research question driving this dissertation is stated. Finally, the key terms are defined, and the organization of the remaining chapters of this dissertation is outlined. The Call Center Business What is a call center? Call centers were first introduced in the 1980s (Rijo, Varajao, & Goncalves, 2012), as organizations saw the benefits of providing a centralized approach to interaction with customers (Batt, 2000). The typical arrangement of a call center includes a set of resources that allow for services to be delivered via the telephone, comprising of (a) employees dedicated to responding to inquiries via the telephone, often referred to as telephone agents or customer service representatives (CSRs); (b) customers CALL CENTER ENVIRONMENT: COGNITIVE LOAD AND EMOTIONAL LABOR 10 who utilize the services the organization provides; and (c) a cluster of information systems, including computer and telephone technology tools that facilitate the delivery and management of service (Rijo et al., 2012). Call centers may be referred to as contact centers, although these are distinct concepts. Call centers focus on primarily providing inbound (incoming phone calls from prospective or existing customers) and outbound (outgoing phone calls to prospective and existing customers) services via the telephone only (Akşin, Armony, & Mehrotra, 2007). In contrast, contact centers utilize other channels of communication—such as online chat, video conferencing, e-mail, and instant messaging—with service customers (Rijo et al., 2012). Call centers typically have a flat organizational structure, with the CSRs—mostly young females—at the bottom level (Robinson & Morley, 2007). The next level consists of team leaders and/or supervisors, supervising the day-to-day activities and quality of work of the CSRs. A manager or director is usually at the next and the highest level in the call center organization. The work design of call centers has been labeled as “teams without teamwork” (Russell, 2008, p. 198). The physical setup of a call center department is often a large open space in which CSRs are often found working in multiple rows of small cubicles, separated from their coworkers by panels on each side (Russell, 2008). As seen in Figure 1, within each of these cubicles, CSRs are provided a work desk, a chair, and the necessary complex hardware and software applications, in addition to other tools required for performing their tasks (Russell, 2008). Varied work shifts, including full-time but mostly part-time, designed to respond to customer demand (Robinson & Morley, 2007), CALL CENTER ENVIRONMENT: COGNITIVE LOAD AND EMOTIONAL LABOR 11 allow managers to maximize the use of each cubicle, which is shared by several CSRs. Furthermore, CSRs are expected to master workflow technologies—a computer with one or more monitor screens and a telephone system—to perform all tasks effectively and efficiently during the assigned work times within the confines of their cubicles. Figure 1. An example of the typical call center office cubicles. Reprinted from iStock/Getty Images, by L. Barthelus, 2015, Retrieved from www.iStock.com. Copyright [2015] by Vasilyev D. Reprinted with permission. A call center is a business activity that plays an integral part in all industry sectors, including the public, private, and government sectors (Batt, 2000). The number and size of call centers have increased exponentially, even as the need for manufacturing and agricultural labor decreased, because the service sector created a demand for face-to-face and/or voice-to-voice communication with customers (Leidner, 1999). Consequently, call centers have become “efficient vehicles for managing the customer interface” (Batt, 2000, p. 542). CALL CENTER ENVIRONMENT: COGNITIVE LOAD AND EMOTIONAL LABOR 12 The relationship between the CSR and the customer is a distinct feature that differentiates service work from other types of labor, such as manufacturing (Batt, 2000). The interaction between CSRs and customers is a critical business activity because it allows organizations to generate, support, and retain customers, thus allowing them to build a loyal and satisfied customer base (Batt, 2000). For this reason, CSRs interact with customers in diverse business sectors, including debt collection departments of credit card companies, sales departments of telemarketing organizations, or benefits departments for pharmaceutical or insurance companies. Differing views on call center work. Researchers exploring the characteristics of call center work practices offer differing views on call center work, depending on the time period and the sector studied. Early Tayloristic views of call centers are still shared by many authors, with call centers being seen as sweatshops (Hechanova, 2012; Leidner, 1999; Taylor & Bain, 1999) in which workers are vigilantly monitored and have little to no autonomy or task control (Cossette & Hess, 2009; Pierre & Tremblay, 2011). Other researchers have a more optimistic view, suggesting that call centers provide solid, information-related job opportunities, high compensation, job autonomy, and minimal performance monitoring in a skilled and entrepreneurial environment (Batt, 2000; Rose & Wright, 2005). A third view considered the socioeconomic evolution from the industrial age to the service and information age and how the role of call centers evolved from being only a volume-driven business activity to having a service quality focus (Leidner, 1999; Russell, 2008). This evolution has created a struggle between two organizational goals: (a) efficiency, with the cost of inputs being expected to be kept low while outputs are maximized, and (b) effectiveness, delivering and maintaining a high level of quality CALL CENTER ENVIRONMENT: COGNITIVE LOAD AND EMOTIONAL LABOR 13 service to customers (Akşin et al., 2007). These competing objectives create an environment in which the work performed by CSRs has a significant impact. Finally, call center researchers Robinson and Morley (2007) presented a hybrid view of the social structure of call centers, taking the position that certain elements from each of the aforementioned perspectives of call center work coexist. The hybrid view postulates that (a) call center managers are driven to operate their call centers efficiently and effectively to ensure customer satisfaction and (b) call centers have created a more stable work environment for both low and skilled workers; however, (c) additional factors elicit an inflexible and controlled work environment for CSRs (Robinson & Morley, 2007). This hybrid view is used to support the purpose of this research because it provides a broader understanding of the challenges managers face in operating a call center operation, particularly customer satisfaction. Why is customer satisfaction a challenge for call center managers? Customer satisfaction, one of the primary external forces driving the competitive service industry, is the perception customers have of the level of quality of service they received (Anderson & Sullivan, 1993; Dormann & Kaiser, 2002; Parasuraman, Zeithaml, & Berry, 1988). The inability to meet the service quality expectations of customers can lead to customer dissatisfaction, potentially having an immediate and negative effect on an organization’s bottom line. In recognition of the need to secure and maintain customer satisfaction, many organizations have taken advantage of call centers by incorporating proprietary operations or outsourcing those activities to other companies domestically or internationally. For example, Dell, Inc., a provider of personal computers, has utilized CALL CENTER ENVIRONMENT: COGNITIVE LOAD AND EMOTIONAL LABOR 14 call centers in India to support its existing customer base. Moreover, with the decreasing cost of information and communication technology (ICT), call center economic activity has grown significantly in many countries like Canada, where the call center industry revenue has increased from 424 million to 2.76 billion between 1998 and 2006 (Marcoux, 2012). The Philippines, a country with over 350,000 call center workers, generated over $6.3 billion in revenue in 2010 (Hechanova, 2012). Therefore, call centers have become a vehicle for organizations, with “over 80% of all customer interactions occurring through call centers and six million service employees worldwide” (Banks & Roodt, 2011, p. 56). The customer satisfactio

Persistence and the part-time community college student: The forgotten majority

Author: Hall C. J.
Publication venue: University of Maryland University College
Publication date: 01/01/2015
Field of study

Part-time students comprise over half of all enrollments in community colleges, yet the majority do not complete their degree or certificate. Part-time community college students tend to fit in the category of nontraditional undergraduates, as they are more likely to be older, be academically underprepared, delay college enrollment, work a full-time job, be independent, and have dependents in their homes. Though part-time students comprise the majority of community college students, few research studies have been able to define the relationship between nontraditional undergraduate characteristics and their decision not to persist in college. This dissertation investigates the factors related to the low persistence rate of part-time community college students. A systematic review of the literature was used to determine the factors that affected their persistence. The dissertation uses three theoretical models, partial inclusion theory, positive illusion theory, and social bond theory to explain why part-time students do not persist at the same rate as their full-time counterparts. The systematic review of the literature revealed that when compared to full-time students, a higher percentage of part-time community college students have one or more of the other factors negatively associated with persistence. The number of part-time students is predicted to continue to rise and community colleges have to respond to the growth. However, the low persistence rate of part-time students cannot remain the same. This dissertation concludes with recommendations of programs and processes for practitioners and scholars that can be implemented to prevent or slow the attrition rate of part-time community college students.Running head: PERSISTENCE AND THE PART-TIME STUDENT 1 Persistence and the Part-time Community College Student: The Forgotten Majority Christopher J. Hall A Dissertation Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of University of Maryland University College in Partial Fulfillment of The Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Management in Community College Policy and Administration Advisory Committee: Dr. Ronald Head, Ph.D. Dr. Charlene Nunley, Ph.D. December 18, 2015 PERSISTENCE AND THE PART-TIME STUDENT 2 ©Copyright by Christopher J. Hall 2015 PERSISTENCE AND THE PART-TIME STUDENT 3 Abstract Part-time students comprise over half of all enrollments in community colleges, yet the majority do not complete their degree or certificate. Part-time community college students tend to fit in the category of nontraditional undergraduates, as they are more likely to be older, be academically underprepared, delay college enrollment, work a full-time job, be independent, and have dependents in their homes. Though part-time students comprise the majority of community college students, few research studies have been able to define the relationship between nontraditional undergraduate characteristics and their decision not to persist in college. This dissertation investigates the factors related to the low persistence rate of part-time community college students. A systematic review of the literature was used to determine the factors that affected their persistence. The dissertation uses three theoretical models, partial inclusion theory, positive illusion theory, and social bond theory to explain why part-time students do not persist at the same rate as their full-time counterparts. The systematic review of the literature revealed that when compared to full-time students, a higher percentage of part-time community college students have one or more of the other factors negatively associated with persistence. The number of part-time students is predicted to continue to rise and community colleges have to respond to the growth. However, the low persistence rate of part-time students cannot remain the same. This dissertation concludes with recommendations of programs and processes for practitioners and scholars that can be implemented to prevent or slow the attrition rate of part-time community college students. Keywords: community colleges, part-time students, persistence, retention, two-year colleges PERSISTENCE AND THE PART-TIME STUDENT 4 Dedication This dissertation is dedicated to my parents. Mom and Dad, thank you. Without your encouragement, this dissertation would not have found its way to the page. The two of you have always been a constant source of inspiration and my examples of perseverance. You never promised me that life would be easy, but you taught me that through prayer, focus, and always doing my absolute best that I could accomplish any task placed before me. PERSISTENCE AND THE PART-TIME STUDENT 5 Acknowledgements Higher education in this country, especially the community college sector, is changing rapidly. As it changes, a new breed of leader must be developed and equipped to make this transition. The Doctor of Management in Community College Policy and Administration (DMCCPA) program at the University of Maryland University College (UMUC) has prepared me by transforming me into a Scholar/Practitioner. To the DMCCPA faculty, thank you. Dr. Head, Dr. Nunley, Dr. Tschechtelin, and Dr. Cain have been an inspiration to me inside and outside the classroom. A special thank you for Dr. Patricia Keir and Dr. Trudy Bers, it is because of your guidance, support, and encouragement that I have reached this milestone in my career. You were firm, but fair. I learned something different for each of you and I am forever changed. Ms. Monica Graham, thank you for always being there to support me whenever I needed a helping hand. To Dr. Susan McMaster, you convinced me to enroll in this program, supported, and encouraged me all the way through to the end. I could never repay all of the random calls, voicemails, and emails you sent just to tell me that you believe in me and to keep pushing through. Dr. McMaster, you are an encourager of the heart. Thank you! To my Central Carolina Technical College family and criminal justice students, thank you for all of your support. All of you inspire me on a daily basis. Mrs. Nancy Bishop, your words of encouragement have meant so much. Dr. Tim Hardee, thank you for allowing me to pick your brain with my leadership questions and especially for opening doors and creating opportunities for me to use what I have learned. I am grateful. To my cohort, Kim, Antrell, Yolanda, and Cathy, we made it. You helped me along this journey. I could not have made it without you. You are my true friends, lux in tenebris. PERSISTENCE AND THE PART-TIME STUDENT 6 Table of Contents Abstract .......................................................................................................................................... 3 Dedication ...................................................................................................................................... 4 Acknowledgements ......................................................................................................................... 5 List of Tables ................................................................................................................................. 8 List of Figures ................................................................................................................................ 9 Chapter 1: Background and Context ............................................................................................. 10 Statement of the Problem .......................................................................................................... 14 Purpose ..................................................................................................................................... 19 Significance ............................................................................................................................... 20 Theoretical Base ........................................................................................................................ 23 Key Terms ................................................................................................................................ 29 Research Questions .................................................................................................................... 31 Summary ................................................................................................................................... 31 Chapter 2: Research Methodology ................................................................................................ 33 Systemic Review: Seven-Stage Process .................................................................................... 33 Expert Panel ............................................................................................................................... 50 Summary ................................................................................................................................... 55 Chapter 3: Literature Review and Conceptual Model ................................................................. 56 The Persistence Problem ........................................................................................................... 56 Characteristics That Influence Student Persistence ................................................................... 61 Personal Characteristics that Influence Persistence ................................................................... 62 Institutional Characteristics that Influence Persistence ............................................................. 69 First-year Persistence ................................................................................................................. 71 PERSISTENCE AND THE PART-TIME STUDENT 7 Part-time Community College Students .................................................................................... 73 Theoretical Models to Improve Part-Time Student Persistence ................................................ 76 Conceptual Model ...................................................................................................................... 84 Summary ................................................................................................................................... 86 Chapter 4: Analysis and Findings ................................................................................................. 88 Critical Analysis of Feedback from Expert Panel ..................................................................... 88 Discussion of Findings .............................................................................................................. 91 Unanticipated Findings ............................................................................................................ 103 Limitations ............................................................................................................................... 104 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................... 104 Chapter 5: Implications for Practice and Suggestions for Future Research ............................... 106 Implications of Findings for Community College Practice ..................................................... 106 Product Model ......................................................................................................................... 109 The Logic Model ..................................................................................................................... 114 Identification of Gaps in Part-Time Student Persistence Research ......................................... 116 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................... 117 References .................................................................................................................................. 118 Appendix A ................................................................................................................................ 134 Feedback on Dissertation from Expert Panel .............................................................................. 134 PERSISTENCE AND THE PART-TIME STUDENT 8 List of Tables Table 1. Community College Student Persistence Search Strings .............................................38 Table 2. Appraisal Methodology Included Studies ......................................................................40 Table 3. Summary of Expert Responses .....................................................................................55 Table 4. Expert Panel Suggestions and Usage ............................................................................89 Table 5. Management Theories, Recommendations, and Practices .......................................... 109 Table 6. Part-time Student Initiative Logic Model ................................................................... 115 PERSISTENCE AND THE PART-TIME STUDENT 9 List of Figures Figure 1. Retention of Part-time Students Compared to Full-Time Students .............................13 Figure 2. Total Enrollment of Public Two-Year Institutions from 1970-2012 ...........................14 Figure 3. Social Bond Theory Model .........................................................................................79 Figure 4. Part-time Student Persistence Conceptual Model .......................................................86 Figure 5. Part-time Student Persistence Product Model for guiding college leaders in the development of initiatives ...........................................................................................110 PERSISTENCE AND THE PART-TIME STUDENT 10 Chapter 1: Background and Context Each year thousands of people make the choice to attend one of the nation’s community colleges to pursue higher education. Community colleges have been the access point for many Americans who otherwise may not have had the opportunity to pursue higher education and student enrollment is expected to increase over the next decade. (American Association of Community Colleges, n.d.; Clotfelter, Ladd, Muschkin, & Vigdor, 2012; Cohen & Brawer, 2008; Marti, 2007; Stuart, Rios-Aguilar, & Deil-Amen, 2014). The National Center for Education Statistics (NCES, 2015a) reported that in fall 2013, 46% of all undergraduate students, or approximately 7.0 million students, were enrolled in public two-year colleges. Approximately 2.8 million of these enrollees were full-time (41%) and approximately 4.1 million students were part-time (59%). However, the American Association of Community Colleges (2014) has found that “access alone is no longer sufficient. A highly educated population is essential for economic growth and a strong democracy. Yet completion rates in U.S. higher education have stagnated. While more students are starting college, too few students are completing credentials” (p. 3). Higher education has come under greater scrutiny from accreditation agencies, educators, policy-makers, and state regulators to ensure that the students who are admitted to these institutions actually complete a college credential (Bailey & Alfonso, 2005; Horn, 2009). The 2006 report by the Spellings Commission, U.S. Department of Education, was the catalyst that sparked the most recent accountability movement in higher education. During the decades of rapid expansion of community colleges, granting access to all was paramount, “but more recently educators, policy-makers, researchers and foundations have all increasingly turned their attention to the actual experience of students enrolled in these institutions” (Bailey & Alfonso, p. 5). “In a PERSISTENCE AND THE PART-TIME STUDENT 11 joint session of Congress on February 24, 2009, President Obama set forth a goal that ‘by 2020, America will once again have the highest proportion of college graduates in the world’” (Russell, 2011, p. 2). In his call for greater accountability, President Obama challenged community colleges to increase the number of college degree holders to 60% by the year 2020 (Advisory Committee on Student Financial Assistance [ACSFA], 2012). This translates to an additional 10 million Americans, ages 25-34, who will obtain at least an associate degree (ACSFA). A national discussion on student retention and degree attainment was sparked by this call to action. In January 2015, President Obama proposed America’s College Promise in his State of the Union address (Fain, 2014). This initiative would make two years of community college free. In exchange for a student’s enrolling at least part-time and maintaining a 2.5 grade point average, the Federal government would fund 75% of the student’s tuition and participating states would fund the remaining 25% (Fain). The research has shown that community college students have low rates of persistence and completion (Bailey & Alfonso; Horn, 2009). As of Spring 2009, only 34% attained a credential from among the first-time community college students enrolled at a United States community college in the 2004-2005 academic year. Of the students who did complete a credential, 12% went on to earn a bachelor’s degree, 14% earned an associate’s degree, and 8% earned a certificate (NCES, 2015a). As for the other 66%, less than one-third were still enrolled after six years and 46% left the community college without earning a credential. Data from the 2009 cohort placed the three-year graduation rate for students that attended two-year colleges at 31% (NCES, 2015a). Bailey and Morest (2006) found that fewer than half of students who start at a community college would earn a certificate or degree within eight years of their initial enrollment (loc. 103). PERSISTENCE AND THE PART-TIME STUDENT 12 From 2003 to 2012, part-time students (the majority of the community college population) were not retained at the same rate as full-time students. Figure 1 from the U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics (NCES, 2015b) shows the difference in the retention rates of part-time and full-time community college students from fall 2003 to fall 2012. Each year the difference in the persistence rate between the two groups was about 20%. The review of the persistence data also showed that 46% of the students who were first-time students did not ever attend another institution after six years (Complete College America, 2011; Hughes, 2013; NCES, 2015a, 2015b). The U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics (NCES, n.d.) defined a part-time student as, “a student enrolled for either less than 12 semester or quarter credits, or less than 24 contact hours a week each term” (para. 2) in its glossary of higher education terms. Fifty-nine percent of public two-year college students were enrolled part-time in fall 2015 and students in this sector represented 40% of all undergraduate students (NCES, 2015c). Figure 2 illustrates the number of part-time students from selected years from 1970- 2012, compared to full-time students. In 2013, approximately 60% of adults who enrolled in two-year/community colleges were 25 or older, 85% of adult enrollees were employed, and 22% of community college students who worked full-time also attended school full-time (American Association of Community Colleges, 2015). During the same year, 88% of four-year students were under 25, 50% were enrolled part-time, 69% were white, 33% worked full-time, and 11% worked part-time according to the NCES(2015c). PERSISTENCE AND THE PART-TIME STUDENT 13 Figure 1. Retention of part-time students compared to full-time students. Adapted from “Institutional Retention and Graduation Rates for Undergraduate Students,” by the National Center for Education Statistics, 2015b. Reprinted with permission. PERSISTENCE AND THE PART-TIME STUDENT 14 Figure 2. Total enrollment of public two-year institutions from 1970-2012, displayed in terms of enrollment status. Adapted from “Institutional Retention and Graduation Rates for Undergraduate Students,” by the National Center for Education Statistics, 2015b, Table 303.70. Reprinted with permission. Statement of the Problem Community college leaders need to address the persistence rates of their students if they are to achieve President Obama’s completion goal by 2020. Copeland, Tietjen-Smith, Waller, & Waller (2008) found that students who initially enrolled full-time are five times more likely to graduate than those who enrolled part-time (p. 68). Because part-time students comprise the majority of community college students, improving their low rate of persistence would be a key place to begin. From the time when community colleges were created, the mission of providing access to all who seek higher education has resulted in a lower retention rate since not all PERSISTENCE AND THE PART-TIME STUDENT 15 students are fully qualified when they apply for college (Bahr, 2008, 2010, 2012; Bailey, Alfonso, Carlos, Jenkins, Kienzl, & Leinbach, 2004; Bailey, Jeong, & Cho, 2010; Bragg & Durham, 2012; Complete College America [CCA], n.d.; Marti, 2007). “Community colleges have played an essential role in expanding access to higher education, but their completion rates remain low” (Jenkins & Cho, 2012, p. 1). The low persistence and graduation rate of students in the country’s public community colleges is threatening the nation’s economy and the mission of the community colleges. Only three out of every ten students who start at a community college persist to graduation. Part-time community college students make up the largest portion of community college students, yet they have the lowest persistence rates of any other student category (Chen & Carro

Confronting crises: Fundamental leadership attributes for managing natural disasters

Author: Baranick E.
Publication venue: University of Maryland University College
Publication date: 01/01/2015
Field of study

This evidence-based research dissertation examined the situational complexity that leaders in networked service organizations (NSOs) face when preparing for and responding to the impact of natural disasters. The purpose of the study was to identify the fundamental competencies needed by those leaders to execute responses that are most effective and lessen the impact of the crises. Crises scenarios are notably pressure-filled, and require rapid decision-making to bring about effective responses. Natural disasters, frequently unpredictable, typically have a significant and dire impact on communities, as well as on the organizational structures and systems that serve these communities during the natural disasters. The inherent ambiguity and uncertainty in dynamic and fluid situations require specific leadership skills for efficient operations and responses. Specifically, this dissertation examined the characteristics and abilities of leaders who positively influenced organizational effectiveness when preparing for the potential impact of and response to natural disasters. A systematic review of the literature found that leaders of NSOs must understand the internal and external environments, must adapt to them, and must communicate broadly with stakeholders. Leaders must exhibit constant and continuous environmental awareness and understanding in order to decode and analyze these inherently stress-filled situations. In addition, NSO leaders who effectively managed the cyclical nature of the crises were better able to assess, interpret, and synthesize ambiguous information related to crises, and provide a more effective organizational response. A realist synthesis and configurative analysis of the primary research studies used as evidence showed that leaders must possess the fundamental competencies of decision-making, environmental awareness, adaptability and information exchange, and must further demonstrate those capabilities throughout each stage of the disaster life cycle — response, recovery, mitigation, and preparation. Additionally, competent leaders facilitated the process of organizational learning throughout the disaster life cycle in order to positively influence the next stage of the cycle — with the goal of being better prepared to reduce further the impact of the next natural disaster.Running head: LEADER ATTRIBUTES FOR MANAGING NATURAL DISASTERS Confronting Crises: Fundamental Leadership Attributes for Managing Natural Disasters by Eric Baranick A Thesis Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of University of Maryland University College in Partial Fulfillment of The Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Management Dissertation Committee: Dr. Deborah Wharff and Dr. Eric Dent Date Submitted: December 31, 2014 LEADER ATTRIBUTES FOR MANAGING NATURAL DISASTERS 2 Dedication I am indebted to many friends and my family for their understanding and patience during the past three and a half years as this journey concludes. The insight from my subject matter experts (SMEs) was invaluable and much appreciated. The support from the University of Maryland University College Doctor of Management Program and each professor was continuous and I am grateful to them all – Dr. Bijlani, Dr. Breckon, Dr. Shepard, Dr. Watts, Dr. Winters, Dr. Witz and last, but not least, my dissertation advisors Dr. Wharff and Dr. Dent and teaching assistant Dr. Kearney, for pushing me academically and challenging me to make the most of this endeavor. Furthermore, I am indebted to my cohort members, in particular Margaret, Tom, and Jim, to whom I also direct my sincere congratulations. I am grateful to my parents, who encouraged me and provided advice and support throughout this journey as I tackled the many frustrations, and to my sister, who used her wittiness to encourage me to go forward. Finally, a great deal of gratitude goes to my wife, Maria, and our three children, Erica, Amanda, and William who have sacrificed family vacations, weekend outings and a general sense of my presence over the past three and a half years, as I immersed myself in research and writing this dissertation. This would not have been possible without their love and support, and I am forever grateful. LEADER ATTRIBUTES FOR MANAGING NATURAL DISASTERS 3 Abstract This evidence-based research dissertation examined the situational complexity that leaders in networked service organizations (NSOs) face when preparing for and responding to the impact of natural disasters. The purpose of the study was to identify the fundamental competencies needed by those leaders to execute responses that are most effective and lessen the impact of the crises. Crises scenarios are notably pressure-filled, and require rapid decision-making to bring about effective responses. Natural disasters, frequently unpredictable, typically have a significant and dire impact on communities, as well as on the organizational structures and systems that serve these communities during the natural disasters. The inherent ambiguity and uncertainty in dynamic and fluid situations require specific leadership skills for efficient operations and responses. Specifically, this dissertation examined the characteristics and abilities of leaders who positively influenced organizational effectiveness when preparing for the potential impact of and response to natural disasters. A systematic review of the literature found that leaders of NSOs must understand the internal and external environments, must adapt to them, and must communicate broadly with stakeholders. Leaders must exhibit constant and continuous environmental awareness and understanding in order to decode and analyze these inherently stress-filled situations. In addition, NSO leaders who effectively managed the cyclical nature of the crises were better able to assess, interpret, and synthesize ambiguous information related to crises, and provide a more effective organizational response. A realist synthesis and configurative analysis of the primary research studies used as evidence showed that leaders must possess the fundamental competencies of decision-making, environmental awareness, adaptability and information exchange, and must further demonstrate those capabilities throughout each stage of the disaster life cycle – response, LEADER ATTRIBUTES FOR MANAGING NATURAL DISASTERS 4 recovery, mitigation, and preparation. Additionally, competent leaders facilitated the process of organizational learning throughout the disaster life cycle in order to positively influence the next stage of the cycle – with the goal of being better prepared to reduce further the impact of the next natural disaster. Keywords: Networked service organization, natural disasters, leadership competencies, agility, environmental awareness, organizational learning LEADER ATTRIBUTES FOR MANAGING NATURAL DISASTERS 5 Table of Contents Abstract .................................................................................................................................. 3 Table of Contents .................................................................................................................... 5 List of Figures ......................................................................................................................... 8 Chapter One: Introduction and Overview of Relevant Literature .......................................... 9 Statement and Significance of the Problem ............................................................................ 9 Importance to Management .................................................................................................. 13 Research Question and Propositions ..................................................................................... 19 Propositions .......................................................................................................................... 20 Definitions of Key Terms within the Literature ................................................................... 20 Organization of the Dissertation ........................................................................................... 21 Chapter Two: Methodology .................................................................................................. 23 Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 23 Evidence-Based Movement .................................................................................................. 23 Systematic Reviews .............................................................................................................. 26 Identification of Evidence ..................................................................................................... 28 Quality Appraisal of Evidence .............................................................................................. 31 Data Analysis and Realist Synthesis ..................................................................................... 33 Advisory Panel of Subject Matter Experts (SMEs) .............................................................. 35 Summary ............................................................................................................................... 36 Chapter Three: Systematic Review of the Literature ............................................................ 37 Theoretical Framework ......................................................................................................... 38 Complex Adaptive Systems Theory ..................................................................................... 38 Complex Leadership Theory ................................................................................................ 39 LEADER ATTRIBUTES FOR MANAGING NATURAL DISASTERS 6 Organizational Learning Theory ........................................................................................... 41 Critical Factors in Organizational Preparedness and Response to Crises ............................ 44 Critical Factors in Leader Preparedness and Response to Crises ......................................... 53 Relationship between Leaders’ Competencies and Effective NSOs .................................... 66 Summary ............................................................................................................................... 80 Chapter 4: Analysis and Discussion .................................................................................... 82 Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 82 Finding One: Environmental awareness underpinned effective NSO leader decision-making. ................................................................................................................................ 87 Finding Two: Leader flexibility, agility, and adaptability to contextual situations positively influence organizational response to crises. ......................................................................... 90 Finding Three: Leader facilitated organizational learning reduced ambiguity and uncertainty. ........................................................................................................................... 93 Alternative Perspective ......................................................................................................... 95 Summary ............................................................................................................................... 97 Chapter 5: Conceptual Framework ...................................................................................... 99 Thematic Issue One: Complex adaptive systems theory provides an explanation for organizations demanding environmental awareness in crises scenarios. ........................... 103 Thematic Issue Two: Complex leadership theory clarifies how flexibility, adaptability, and agile decision-making improve NSO preparedness and response to natural disasters. ...... 105 Thematic Issue Three: Organizational learning is a critical component of how NSOs are able to prepare for and respond to crises. ........................................................................... 106 Summary ............................................................................................................................. 108 Chapter 6: Conclusions, Implications and Trends ............................................................. 109 LEADER ATTRIBUTES FOR MANAGING NATURAL DISASTERS 7 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 109 Overall Conclusions ............................................................................................................ 109 Implications for Management/Practitioner ......................................................................... 112 Implications of Emerging Trends ....................................................................................... 113 Limitations and Areas for Future Research ........................................................................ 115 Summary ............................................................................................................................. 116 References ........................................................................................................................... 118 Appendix A: Subject Matter Expert Evaluation & Feedback Form ................................... 131 Appendix B: Literature Summary Table ........................................................................... 144 Appendix C: Affirmative responses to network traits ........................................................ 148 LEADER ATTRIBUTES FOR MANAGING NATURAL DISASTERS 8 List of Figures Figure 1. Disaster management cycle. .................................................................................. 18 Figure 2. Process for narrowing the studies. ........................................................................ 30 Figure 3. Managerial leadership behaviors. .......................................................................... 55 Figure 4. Organizational agility dimensions and correlations. ............................................. 57 Figure 5. Generic leadership traits and response rate.. ......................................................... 59 Figure 6. Descriptive statistics and correlations. .................................................................. 64 Figure 7. Effective leader behaviors.. .................................................................................. 73 Figure 8. Definitions of leadership by for-profit and public organizations.. ....................... 75 Figure 9. Resilience descriptors and statistics.. ................................................................... 78 Figure 10. Articles by year of publication. ........................................................................... 85 Figure 11. Disaster life cycle.. .............................................................................................. 87 Figure 12. Conceptual framework ..................................................................................... 101 Figure 13. Propositions and related leadership competencies. .......................................... 102 LEADER ATTRIBUTES FOR MANAGING NATURAL DISASTERS 9 Chapter One: Introduction and Overview of Relevant Literature Statement and Significance of the Problem This dissertation examined the leadership competencies required to prepare for and respond to the impact of potential natural disaster crises managed by NSOs (networked service organizations). The effects of natural disasters are chaotic and indiscriminate, however, this dissertation assessed empirical evidence to determine how to lessen their impact on an organization and the affected population through focused preparation and adequate response. Between 1971 and 1995, disasters caused unparalleled damage affecting over a hundred million people on average per year (Twigg & Steiner, 2002). The 2009 International Federation of the Red Cross and Red Crescent (IFRC) annual World Disasters Report noted a 62% increase in the number of disaster-related deaths between 1989-1998 and 1999-2008. The impact of natural disasters was further exacerbated by the rise in the number of people affected by disasters over the same ten-year period, rising from 2.130 billion to 2.695 billion, respectively (IFRC, 2009, p. 180). This 26.5% increase was far greater than the world’s population growth rate, which the World Bank estimated to be 1.2% per year for the past decade (World Bank, 2012) and highlights the exponential increase the impact of natural disasters is having on humanity and the service organizations that respond accordingly. The increasing frequency of disasters and increasing number of people affected highlight the importance of well-prepared and competent leaders of NSOs to effectively and efficiently adapt to the a changing environment. However, some recent examples highlight that leaders are not always prepared, and a less than adequate response ensues. Farazmand (2007) argued that following Hurricane Katrina, both federal and local government agencies were unprepared to respond to a disaster of this scope. This lack of LEADER ATTRIBUTES FOR MANAGING NATURAL DISASTERS 10 preparation resulted in a management crisis and a breakdown in response activities at various levels. Analyzing the same event, Comfort (2007) found that those in leadership roles were unable to comprehend the existing hazards and vulnerabilities in the impacted area, thus contributing to the perceptions of a poor response by those directly affected, and the public at large. Additionally, similar events in the United States, including the 1992 Hurricane Andrew and the 1994 Northridge Earthquake, demonstrated the broad impact disasters have on community infrastructure requiring extensive response and recovery, both economic and organizational, to meet the needs of the affected population (Harrald, 2006). Crises by their very nature are complex events and, for a variety of reasons, leaders of NSOs sometimes find it overwhelming to prepare for them. Van Wart and Kapucu (2011) concluded the limited frequency of disasters contributed to the lack of preparedness and poor response when 35,000 people in Europe fell victim to an unparalleled heat wave in 2003. Hypothetically, leaders may be able to prepare for unanticipated events, but planning for every possible disaster is financially and operationally not feasible (Van Wart & Kapucu, 2011). This dissertation evaluated actions organizations may take to improve disaster preparation and response, by focusing specifically on leadership competencies. There are potentially additional actions to be taken by other members of the organization that could influence effectiveness and efficiency; however, examining the leadership competencies that facilitated organizational response and preparedness to crises, specifically within NSOs, bounded the scope of this dissertation. Leadership devoid of requisite competencies and organizations lacking systems and structures have the potential to influence negatively the organizational response to disasters. Following the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami, the lack of coordination and information sharing by responding organizations led to the impression of poor response efforts by those in the LEADER ATTRIBUTES FOR MANAGING NATURAL DISASTERS 11 affected community (Harrald, 2006). Stakeholder perceptions must be incorporated into the decision-making by NSO leadership during response and planning scenarios. Pearson and Mitroff (1993) underscored how leader awareness of public perception of the response efforts could positively, or conversely, negatively influence the outcome (p.55). Likewise, the ability to adapt while planning for the impact and outcome following a disaster could improve organizational response and have a positive effect on community perception. Boin and t’Hart (2003) found that following the 1992 transportation crisis in Amsterdam (airplane crash), the promises by government leaders to respond were initially well received. However, unforeseen problems relating to the long-term provisions of public services to those affected by the event during the response led to a significant backlash against the Dutch government, further illustrating that leaders must be able to confront a broad spectrum of crises, and a range of contingencies and competencies are required for an effective organizational response. Organizational effectiveness is a construct that requires extensive examination of the goals and other contextual outcome-based variables that provide insight into how organizations measure their success. Scholars have focused on a variety of methods for determining effectiveness, to include goal attainment, reputational measures, and resource dimensions (Lecy, Schmitz, & Swedlund, 2012, p. 439). One aspect of NSO goal attainment and organizational effectiveness was achieved when the networked organizational structure improved the ability of each individual organization to be better prepared and respond more efficiently than the individual organizations acting alone (McGuire & Silvia, 2009, p. 37). Scholars have debated the actual metric of the specific dimension indicating NSO success. More recently, however, there has been a movement toward examining a multidimensional approach for determining networked organizational LEADER ATTRIBUTES FOR MANAGING NATURAL DISASTERS 12 effectiveness. These four dimensions most prominent in the li

Islam: A participant observational experience

Author: Hayward Walter
Publication venue: University of Maryland University College (UMUC)
Publication date: 2015
Field of study

According to a Pew Research Center finding, Muslims are perceived as the coldest religious group in the United States receiving a rating of only 40 on a 100 point scale where Jewish people are ranked 63, and even Atheists scored a 41 (2014a). As a member of the military and working in the U.S. government security world I have also seen firsthand the suspicion and misunderstanding of Islam and its people. For my observation exercise I decided to challenge these suspicions and experience prayer time at an Islamic mosque, Masjid Al Falaah, which is the first to be founded in my area. It was through this experience that I experienced a common humanity with the worshippers that attended this service. From this observation experience I learned that Islam is a calm and thoughtful religion where the sociological principles of symbolic interactionism, the sacred, rituals, and religious tolerance are ever-present in its core principles.Running Head: ISLAM 1 Social Science Essay Cover Sheet Name: Walter Hayward Major: Psychology Email: [email protected] ISLAM 2 Islam: A participant observational experience According to a Pew Research Center finding, Muslims are perceived as the coldest religious group in the United States receiving a rating of only 40 on a 100 point scale where Jewish people are ranked 63, and even Atheists scored a 41 (2014a). As a member of the military and working in the U.S. government security world I have also seen firsthand the suspicion and misunderstanding of Islam and its people. For my observation exercise I decided to challenge these suspicions and experience prayer time at an Islamic mosque, Masjid Al Falaah, which is the first to be founded in my area. It was through this experience that I experienced a common humanity with the worshippers that attended this service. From this observation experience I learned that Islam is a calm and thoughtful religion where the sociological principles of symbolic interactionism, the sacred, rituals, and religious tolerance are ever-present in its core principles. As I first arrived at the mosque I was surprised to find that it was a small building that almost appeared to be a portable shelter. It didn’t meet my preconceived expectations of a mosque. However, I did remember a Muslim friend state that many in the area were not traditional looking mosques, and I called upon my own religious experience that anything can be made sacred (Openstaxx, 2013). My own Christian church rents out a private school on the weekends and I immediately realized it was unfair to expect a “requirement” that my own church does not meet, and realized immediately that it is not the sacred place that makes the worshipper, but the worshipper that make the place sacred. As I walked into the mosque I was transported into a sacred area. I was infused with calm as I walked into the mosque. The incense was mixed with warmth, and the hushed tones ISLAM 3 conferred to me that I was in a place of ritual where I could commune with a higher power. From the moment I entered the mosque I was surrounded by ritual. The first ritual upon entering this sacred area was to remove my shoes. As I was about to leave the vestibule area and walk onto the carpeted main area, there were helpful instructions that guided me to enter with my right foot first and the ritualistic words that I needed to speak as I did so. I then sat respectfully towards the back as the service began. The service began with someone up front saying prayers in what I believed to be Arabic. After the prayer, the Imam stood in front of those gathered and began to speak to the worshippers about everyday application of the Qur’an especially in regards to the raising of children and teaching them about Islam. When the Imam finished we began to observe the official prayer time. There were natural lines on the carpeted floor and everyone began to fill in the empty spaces in order to be as close to the front as possible. Intermittently there was a bell rung to indicate a ritualistic lowering of every person in the room to their knees to kiss the ground and occasional recitation of a response to the Imam. The filling in of the empty spaces in order to be close to the front and the prostrating myself on the ground highlighted the symbolic-interactionism aspect of Islam (Openstaxx, 2013). By filling in the empty spaces and moving closer to the front of the mosque showed that on the micro community level they were a closely knit community that literally stands shoulder to shoulder in prayer and approach the external world as one. The prostration showed how together they are humble humans when compared to Allah, but that together as a religious group acting with one goal they are strong. When the event was concluded, the congregation greeted each other in friendly social ways and left the carpeted area with their right foot first and reciting words that were on a sheet of paper similar to the entrance instructions. ISLAM 4 After the service I spoke with an older Muslim gentleman that was nearby. I asked this gentleman, Mr. S., what it meant to be a part of this mosque and what it provided him in his daily life he gave me very honest and open answers. Mr. S. relayed to me that first and foremost the mosque and its community gave him strength. When he first immigrated to the U.S. and then to the Harford County area of Maryland he said that he was scared and felt weak due to the lack of strong, social support network derived from a religious community. In addition to his personal needs it also boiled down to wanting his children to be a part of a strong religious community and the benefits that it could provide, which very much tied into the particular message that the Imam discussed in his message of the day. After talking to Mr. S., I was honored to be introduced to the Imam, who identified himself as the resident Qur’an scholar, and he graced me with the opportunity to ask questions for my paper. When I asked the resident scholar, “How does Islam make its followers better people,” he congratulated me on such a good question. The resident scholar relayed to me that Islam makes its followers better people based upon three primary principles. The first principle is the belief in the “hereafter” and that knowing that our good deeds and bad deeds will be judged makes Muslims more accountable for the decisions they make. The second principle is that nature and everything that has been given by Allah is given not to control, but to appreciate and use respectfully. The third and final way that was described to me was mentorship. The resident scholar stated that followers of Islam are responsible for mentoring others in their lives and in the ways of Islam in order to create a strong religious community. I also asked the resident scholar what he felt was the most misunderstood part of Islam by the world at large. The resident scholar provided me answers to a few other questions, but I then entered into deep philosophical conversation about the world and life and he continuously pointed me to parts of ISLAM 5 the Qur’an that covered many current scientific miracles that are happening today and knowledge such as the big bang theory. His biggest revelation to me was the amount of religious tolerance that was included in the Qur’an (ARDA, n.d.). In Surah 2:62 it is said that even the Jews and Christians will receive their reward. The resident scholar defined this passage to me by stating that Islam accepts other religions and does not believe that if you lead a life of good that you will be punished for your beliefs. However, if the Truth was revealed to me, that Allah and Islam is the only way, that I must then choose to follow Islam or else there will be consequences. This experience was transcendental in how it affected me immediately after and now as I write this paper. Talking to the resident scholar was similar to my own pastor in his referencing of the bible and his ultimate belief that science and religion should not be separated from each other and that scientific advancement is just the discovery of what God/Allah has provided humanity. I feel that it did broaden my ability to increase discourse with those of a different religion. By seeing the similarities between my own beliefs and those of Islam I was able to truly see how we are more similar than different in many ways. I feel much more knowledgeable and schooled in a religion that I have been taught only to be suspicion of previously. The only difficult part of this exercise was not understanding Arabic and having no knowledge of the Qur’an. While this ultimately didn’t have an effect on this amazing experience I think it would have been helpful to know the basic prayer responses and to have basic knowledge of the Qur’an. This difficulty can be easily addressed by doing a little bit more research on Islamic rituals and studying the Qur’an that the resident scholar kindly gifted me. We live in a world where globally, Muslims were harassed in 109 countries in 2012, coming in behind Christians who were harassed in 110 (Pew Research Center, 2014b). This ISLAM 6 exercise gave me the unique experience of worshipping alongside Muslims. My personal conversation with Mr. S. gave me a very human insight into the driving force behind not just Muslims but people of any faith. The time and knowledge granted to me by the Imam was insightful into the deeper philosophies and beliefs of the Islamic faith and provided me a deeper understanding of people of a different religion. This experience showed me that as with every religion Islam is full of the symbolic interactionism that uses a sacred place of meeting in which to perform their necessary rituals that connect them with Allah. I left a deeper person by being shown their unwavering religious tolerance as they accepted me into their place of worship and gave me their time, knowledge, and spirit. However, most of all this experience gave me a deeper understanding of humanity and that despite our religious difference that we shore more with each other than the gift of wandering through space on this small blue planet. ISLAM 7 References Association of Religious Data Archives. (n.d.). Concepts. Retrieved from http://wiki.thearda.com/tcm/concepts/ OpenStaxx College. (2013). Introduction to Sociology. Rice University: Houston, TX. Pew Research Center. (2014a). How Americans feel about religious groups. Retrieved from http://www.pewforum.org/2014/07/16/how-americans-feel-about-religious-groups/ Pew Research Center. (2014b). Religious hostilities reach six-year high. Retrieved from http://www.pewforum.org/2014/01/14/religious-hostilities-reach-six-year-high

Perceptions of Organizational Injustice: Why Employees React with Counterproductive Work Behaviors

Author: Reese Penny
Publication venue: University of Maryland University College (UMUC)
Publication date: 23/10/2015
Field of study

This presentation determines which counterproductive work behaviors are linked to each type of organizational injustice and establishes if there are mediating factors that intensify the relationship between organizational injustice and counterproductive work behaviors.Perceptions of Organizational Injustice: Why Employees React with Counterproductive Work Behaviors Implications for Practitioners •Counterproductive work behaviors can be decreased by improving employee justice perceptions. •Organizations should carefully outline policies and procedures allowing employees the opportunity to voice their opinions and appeal decisions they believe are unfair. •Training management to communicate with employees in an honest and unbiased manner can decrease perceptions of interactional injustice.. •Screening for negative personality traits and negative emotional reactions can assist in determining which employees or potential employees are prone to counterproductive work behaviors. Penny Reese The Graduate School University of Maryland University College, Adelphi, MD Findings •Distributive injustice and interactional injustice are positively related to both minor and serious interpersonal and organizational deviances. •Procedural injustice is positively related to minor organizational deviances. •Negative emotional reactions and negative personality traits mediate the relationship between organizational injustice and counterproductive work behaviors. •Emotional exhaustion mediates the relationship between distributive injustice and minor organizational deviances. •A relationship could not be confirmed between self-identity, organizational injustice, and counterproductive work behaviors. Implications for Scholars •This research contributes to behavioral management theory by showing that perceptions of injustice can motivate employees to react poorly in the workplace. •Contributes to organizational justice literature by connecting individual types of injustice to specific categories of counterproductive work behaviors. Research Questions How do employee perceptions of organizational injustice influence counterproductive work behaviors? How do mediating factors influence employee reactions to perceptions of injustice? Purpose of the Study •Determining which counterproductive work behaviors are linked to each type of organizational injustice. •Establishing if there are mediating factors that intensify the relationship between organizational injustice and counterproductive work behaviors. Methodology •Define research questions •Develop search criteria •Evaluate quality of studies •Code and extract data •Thematic synthesis The Problem for Practitioners •Employee theft costs organizations worldwide an estimated 100 billion dollars each year. •Unscheduled absenteeism can cost as much as $755 per employee. •In the United States, the estimated loss for organizations from internet misuse by employees is 85 billion annually (Thomas, 2012, p.3). •Counterproductive work behaviors can “be responsible for as much as 20 percent of all business failures and up to two percent of annual business sales” (Thomas, 2012, p.3). Thomas, J. (2012). Counterproductive work behavior: Living in wonderland. Retrieved from http://www.psych.auckland.ac.nz/ Independent Variables/Causes (Organizational Injustices) Mediating Variables Dependent Variables/Consequences (Counterproductive Work Behaviors) Distributive injustice Pay inequities Unfair allocation of resources Procedural injustice Unfair policies Unfair procedures Interactional injustice Disrespectfulness or dishonesty from supervisor Employees given inaccurate or incomplete information Negative Emotional Responses Anger Envy Frustration Anxiety Personality Traits Aggressiveness Impulsivity Negativism Vengefulness Self-Identity Emotional Exhaustion Organizational Production Deviance (minor) Absenteeism Withdrawal Working slow Property Deviance (serious) Theft Sabotage Fraud Interpersonal Political Deviance (minor) Gossiping Favoritism Personal Aggression (serious) Physical abuse Verbal abuse Conceptual Model Dissertation Committee Dr. Thomas Mierzwa Dr. Denise Breckon Contact Information Penny Reese [email protected] Type of Injustice Number of Articles Distributive Only 2 Procedural and Interactional 4 Procedural and Distributive 6 Procedural Only 6 Distributive, Procedural, and Interactional 13 Interactional Only 15 Study Datase

2015 - 2016 UMUC Europe Graduate - Catalog

Author
Publication venue: University of Maryland University College (UMUC)
Publication date: 2015
Field of study

Europ

2015 - 2016 UMUC Stateside Graduate - Catalog

Author
Publication venue: University of Maryland University College (UMUC)
Publication date: 2015
Field of study

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