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Transformational leadership behavior's effect on knowledge application: A systematic review
No full textToday, many organizations are knowledge-oriented organizations. However, not all use knowledge application effectively to maximize the potential generation of knowledge capital. Management and staff are essential to the conversion of organizational knowledge into knowledge capital and leadership is integral to an organization’s habitual use of knowledge application. Nonetheless, there is a lack of understanding by management of those leadership traits best able to focus employees in the habitual use of knowledge application to complete the knowledge management process. This dissertation used a systematic review with a thematic synthesis of 33 articles to identify transformational leadership behaviors that drive a knowledge management system to completion through the use of knowledge application. The four I’s of transformational leadership—idealized influence (II), inspirational motivation (IM), individualized concern (IC), and intellectual stimulation (IS)—guided a two-part thematic synthesis to identify those transformational leadership behaviors most relevant to knowledge leadership. A conceptual model was designed to display the relationship between the transformational leadership attributes and the outcome of knowledge application. To further integrate leadership into knowledge application development, the framework was applied to the Project Management Institute’s (PMI) Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK) to illustrate a means for practitioners to review transformational leadership traits when pursuing knowledge application.Transformational Leadership Behavior’s Effect on Knowledge Application:
A Systematic Review
Felicia F. Lo
A Dissertation
Submitted to the
Graduate Faculty
of
University of Maryland University College
In Partial Fulfillment of
The Requirements for the Degree
of
Doctor of Management
May 2016
Dissertation Committee:
Leslie D. Dinauer, Ph.D.
John Sherlock, Ph.D. TRANSFORMATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND KNOWLEDGE APPLICATION
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Abstract
Today, many organizations are knowledge-oriented organizations. However, not all use knowledge application effectively to maximize the potential generation of knowledge capital. Management and staff are essential to the conversion of organizational knowledge into knowledge capital and leadership is integral to an organization’s habitual use of knowledge application. Nonetheless, there is a lack of understanding by management of those leadership traits best able to focus employees in the habitual use of knowledge application to complete the knowledge management process. This dissertation used a systematic review with a thematic synthesis of 33 articles to identify transformational leadership behaviors that drive a knowledge management system to completion through the use of knowledge application. The four I’s of transformational leadership—idealized influence (II), inspirational motivation (IM), individualized concern (IC), and intellectual stimulation (IS)—guided a two-part thematic synthesis to identify those transformational leadership behaviors most relevant to knowledge leadership. A conceptual model was designed to display the relationship between the transformational leadership attributes and the outcome of knowledge application. To further integrate leadership into knowledge application development, the framework was applied to the Project Management Institute’s (PMI) Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK) to illustrate a means for practitioners to review transformational leadership traits when pursuing knowledge application.
Keywords: Knowledge application, knowledge management, transformational leadership, Project Management Body of Knowledge TRANSFORMATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND KNOWLEDGE APPLICATION
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Table of Contents
Abstract .......................................................................................................................................... 1
Table of Contents ............................................................................................................................ 2
List of Tables ................................................................................................................................. 5
Table of Figures .............................................................................................................................. 6
Acknowledgements ......................................................................................................................... 7
Dedication ...................................................................................................................................... 8
Chapter 1: Introduction ................................................................................................................... 9
Transformational Leadership and Knowledge Application ...................................................... 9
Knowledge Management as a Corporate Asset ...................................................................... 11
Statement of the Problem ........................................................................................................ 13
Purpose of the Dissertation ..................................................................................................... 16
Organization of the Dissertation ............................................................................................. 17
Chapter 2: Literature Review ........................................................................................................ 18
Knowledge Application .......................................................................................................... 18
A Knowledge-Oriented Organization ..................................................................................... 24
Knowledge Management System ........................................................................................... 25
Knowledge Leadership ........................................................................................................... 31
Transformational Leadership .................................................................................................. 33
Knowledge Leadership and Transformational Leadership ..................................................... 37
4 I Themes as a Theoretical Structure ..................................................................................... 39
Summary ................................................................................................................................ 42
TRANSFORMATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND KNOWLEDGE APPLICATION
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Chapter 3: Methodology ............................................................................................................... 43
Systematic Review .................................................................................................................. 44
Step 1: Expert Review Panel................................................................................................... 51
Step 2: Framing the Research Question .................................................................................. 53
Step 3: Defining the Search Strategy ...................................................................................... 57
Step 4: Quality and Relevance Assessment ............................................................................ 64
Step 5: Synthesis ..................................................................................................................... 82
Step 6: Interpretation of Findings ........................................................................................... 84
Chapter 4: Results ......................................................................................................................... 86
Framework for the Four I Analytical Themes ........................................................................ 87
Idealized Influence (II) ........................................................................................................... 92
Inspirational Motivation (IM) ................................................................................................. 98
Individualized Consideration (IC) ........................................................................................ 106
Intellectual Stimulation (IS) .................................................................................................. 113
Conceptual Framework ......................................................................................................... 122
Summary ............................................................................................................................... 124
Chapter 5: Implications to Practitioners and Suggestions for Future Research .......................... 125
Implications to Practitioners ................................................................................................. 125
Correlating Transformational Leadership in Knowledge Application to the PMBOK ........ 127
Limitations ............................................................................................................................ 132
Suggestions for Future Research .......................................................................................... 133
References .................................................................................................................................. 136
Appendix A: Glossary................................................................................................................. 153 TRANSFORMATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND KNOWLEDGE APPLICATION
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Appendix B: UMUC Library OneSource Database List as of 07/21/2015 ................................ 157
Appendix C: Mixed Methods Appraisal Tool (MMAT) ............................................................ 159
Appendix D: Data Source and Conclusions Provided by Each of the 33 Articles ..................... 162
TRANSFORMATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND KNOWLEDGE APPLICATION
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List of Tables
Table 1 Knowledge Management Approaches ............................................................................. 28
Table 2 Potential Gains of Knowledge-Sharing in an Organization............................................. 31
Table 3 MLQ-5X Leadership Styles ............................................................................................. 34
Table 4 Characteristics of IT Innovation Champions ................................................................... 38
Table 5 The 21 ENTREQ Elements .............................................................................................. 48
Table 6 External Review Panel Members ..................................................................................... 52
Table 7 CIMO Elements for this Research Question.................................................................... 56
Table 8 Boolean String Search Protocol ....................................................................................... 59
Table 9 Journals Used in the Systematic Review ......................................................................... 62
Table 10 Exclusion Criteria and Examples ................................................................................... 65
Table 11 The 2011 Mixed-Methods Appraisal Tool (MMAT) Checklist .................................... 70
Table 12 Quality Assessment Ranking Criterion and Distribution .............................................. 72
Table 13 Number of Traits per Citation ........................................................................................ 74
Table 14 Ranking Assigned to Each Citation ............................................................................... 75
Table 15 Example of Thematic Synthesis for the Analytical Theme Innovation ......................... 83
Table 16 Framework for the 4 I Themes ...................................................................................... 87
Table 17 The 33 Articles Separated According to the 4 I Theme Quadrants ............................... 90
Table 18 Eleven Articles that Support Idealized Influence Traits and Ranking ........................... 93
Table 19 Twelve Articles that Support Inspirational Motivation Traits and Ranking ............... 100
Table 20 Eighteen Articles that Support Individualized Consideration Traits and Ranking ...... 108
Table 21 Twenty Articles that Support Intellectual Stimulation Traits and Ranking................. 115
Table 22 Transformational Leadership Themes Compared to the PMBOK .............................. 127 TRANSFORMATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND KNOWLEDGE APPLICATION
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Table of Figures
Figure 1 Knowledge Application in the Knowledge Management Process. ................................ 15
Figure 2 Knowledge Management Process as Defined in Eight Seminal Studies ........................ 19
Figure 3 Data Flow Between Individuals in the Knowledge Transfer Process ............................ 29
Figure 4 Shared Characteristics of Knowledge Leadership and Transformational Leadership ... 39
Figure 5 PRISMA Diagram Showing 33 Articles Included in the Synthesis. .............................. 64
Figure 6 Sixteen Analytical Themes Separated According to the 4 I Themes. ............................ 91
Figure 7 Descriptive Themes for Idealized Influence (II). ........................................................... 92
Figure 8 Descriptive Themes for Inpirational Motivation (IM). .................................................. 99
Figure 9 Descriptive Themes for Individualized Consideration (IC). ........................................ 107
Figure 10 Descriptive Themes for Intellectual Stimulation (IS). ............................................... 114
Figure 11 Conceptual Model of Transformational Leadership and Knowledge Application. ... 123
TRANSFORMATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND KNOWLEDGE APPLICATION
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Acknowledgements
At residency, new students would interview a panel of their peers in the final course of DMGT892. I laughed when these colleagues said the most important element of success was the friends you made in the program and during the process. As life intervened and my dissertation took longer and longer, my cohort grew in size and the friends I made were indeed essential to my success. I’d like to acknowledge those invaluable persons who kept me connected to life and other things around me: Mohamed, Joe, Jacob, Wendy, Heather, Rosette, Tomchai, Tommy, Coach, Dr. Tim, Richard, Laurence, Coffee Chat, and anyone else in that original 800 crew. Thank you, Wanda, Donald, Louis, Sharon, Margaret, Calvin, Denise, and Mike for your critical edits and valuable feedback.
At UMUC, I benefited from an amazing staff and gracious professors who supported me every step of the way. I especially owe many thanks to Dr. Leslie Dinauer and Dr. Laura Witz for shining their light on me. I never realized how wrong I could be until I met you two lovely ladies! Dr. Gelatt, Dr. Edwards, and Dr. Watts, you all made me think of things so differently in 890. Thanks, Dr. Sherlock, for stepping in during 892. Thank you to the rest of the professors who were part of my curriculum: Ijose, Wharff, Winters, Steinbuch, Breckon, and Bijlani. Special thanks are needed for the all-knowing M’s (Marina, your advice always hit home) and much appreciation to Cynthia Thomes, my birthday twin.
Thank you to my panelists: Robert Bectel, L. Steven Gunsior, Warren J. Katz, and LTC J. David Thompson. Also I must acknowledge all the friends and colleagues I met at the VA, FAA, DoE, IMC, EES, MITA/NEMA and Atlas Research. Also thanks to a wonderful editor, Michelle LeFurge who graciously helped with a million technical APA questions. Many thanks to my sister and sister-in law (DnA) and to anyone else who watched the duo so I could work. TRANSFORMATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND KNOWLEDGE APPLICATION
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Dedication
This dissertation is dedicated to my father, Dr. Yao Tyng Chiu. As a wonderful news reporter once wrote, he lived the American dream. I am so thankful I had a chance to share my hopes and aspirations with him. Dad, I see you in the faces of Ellie and Parker every day and I know you are smiling down on me from heaven. I miss you more than you will ever know.
This study is also dedicated to my mother, Jolande N. Chiu. Thank you for your love and support. Your words of endearment mean so much to me. You truly are a kind and patient individual. I am so grateful I can talk to you about my daily smiles and struggles. I will always do my best to make you proud.
Last, but not least, I want to dedicate this lovely document my wonderful powerful duo, Ellie and Parker, who started this adventure with me when they were only four and five. I love you to the moon and back.
TRANSFORMATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND KNOWLEDGE APPLICATION
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Chapter 1: Introduction
Knowledge application is the final step in the knowledge management process, an essential step that often determines whether knowledge management programs succeed or fail. Knowledge application innovation and transformation of knowledge phase where a knowledge capital, as a corporate asset, can be created that is as potentially profitable to a company as any physical asset. Yet, “[a]mong various knowledge management processes, knowledge application seems to be the most understudied process” (Alavi & Tiwana, 2002, p. 1029).
Because knowledge management is “both old and new [information], and its combination of new ideas with ideas that ‘everyone has known all along’” (Prusak, 2001, p. 1002), knowledge that is gathered and stored in a system, but not applied, cannot provide its full potential value. To capture and share knowledge in an organization, knowledge management incorporates processes, people, and technology (Chief Knowledge Officer, 2011; Goel, Rana, & Rastogi, 2010; Yahya & Goh, 2002). In the people component, management is the essential element in a knowledge leadership able to focus operations on knowledge application (Yang, Huang, & Hsu, 2014). Therefore, this dissertation will focus specifically on the characteristics of leadership that offer a knowledge-oriented organization the optimum means to establish knowledge application as a habitual part of the corporate enterprise.
Transformational Leadership and Knowledge Application
The research demonstrates that transformational leadership has a significant impact on knowledge application. Several studies have shown that there is a substantial increase in the use of knowledge application when transformational leadership characteristics prevail (Bass, 1985; Birasnav, 2013; Kuo, Lai, & Lee, 2011; Stevens, 2011; Tung & Chang, 2011; Xue, Bradley & Liang, 2011). García-Morales, Lloréns-Montes, and Verdú-Jover (2008) found that “[o]ne of the TRANSFORMATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND KNOWLEDGE APPLICATION
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primary contributions of this study is its verification that transformational leadership helps to develop a foundation of organizational knowledge in the organization” (p. 312). Yet, the link between knowledge leadership and transformational leadership as it applies to the habitual use of knowledge application has not been made in a way that is useful and available to the practitioners poised to help their organizations convert knowledge into knowledge capital.
Increased use of knowledge application through transformational leadership has three parts. First, a leader who encourages and fosters the use of knowledge application may create a work force that believes in the value of knowledge capital in the organization (Zander & Kogut, 1995). Second, a knowledge-creating company can only succeed and grow when leadership is in place to make it flourish (Nonaka & Takeuchi, 1995; Zack; 2003). Third, a wise leader invokes the power of an organization’s resources and drives value through the work force (Nonaka & Takeuchi, 2011). Overall, the literature reviewed for this dissertation confirmed that leadership that is transformational has a different impact in knowledge application than other leadership traits afforded through other styles such as transactional leadership or laissez faire leadership.
Employees sustain an organization’s knowledge management system when they apply knowledge held by the organization. If an organization is unable to transfer and distribute knowledge, then this lack of sharing cuts off the final knowledge management phase, completion (Dulipovici & Robey, 2013). When knowledge application produces knowledge capital, it drives the creation of a network of organizational knowledge (Nonaka, 2007) and engenders competitive advantage (Zack, 2003). If management cannot distinguish between knowledge application and knowledge management, this could pose a problem for a knowledge-oriented organization. TRANSFORMATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND KNOWLEDGE APPLICATION
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It is transformational leadership of knowledge workers that can best drive an empowered knowledge-creating process. This empowered group of workers can then create the foundation for a knowledge-oriented organization (Drucker, 1999). Because knowledge application is significant in knowledge networks and to the development and/or stabilization of an organization’s knowledge management processes, the leadership traits that foster habitual knowledge application cannot continue to be understudied. Yet, as discovered in the systematic review of the evidence generated by this study, not all transformational leadership traits lead to knowledge application.
Knowledge Management as a Corporate Asset
Knowledge is a potential asset in a knowledge-oriented organization (Yang et al., 2014), albeit one that is often underdeveloped. Knowledge becomes an asset by adding value to information that has been converted into applied knowledge through a system of processes that capture and share knowledge i
With cybersecurity comes trust: A systematic review for private-sector organization cybersecurity-trust measures
No full textThis presentation examines the cybersecurity measures used by varying organizations to determine which cybersecurity measures maintain consumers’ trust in private-sector organizations and what methods work to implement the identified cybersecurity-trust
measures into the organizations’ business practices.With Cybersecurity Comes Trust: !
A Systematic Review for Private-Sector Organization Cybersecurity-Trust Measures
R o b y! n M. Garner | Dissertation Committee: Dr. Rick Milter and Dr. Kriesta Watson |! University of Maryland University College !
Theories:
Trust Theory!
Risk Management Theory!
Methodology:
PRISMA Search!
Weight of Evidence!
Thematic Synthesis!
Theories &
Methodologies
Trusted &
Competitive
Stakeholder
Risk Assessment
Scholarship:
1. Origin of cybersecurity is governance:
cybersecurity research should shift focus
from technical measures to governance!
2. Multiple leadership practices affect
implementation methods, research should
explore which leadership practices are most
effective in building a culture of
cybersecurity in organizations!
!
Implications for Practitioners & Scholarship/Research
Practitioners:
1. Critical to align stakeholder values
with organizational objectives!
2. All measures must be at work,
simultaneously!
3. All methods must be at work,
simultaneously!
4. Policy and leadership are the driving
methods!
Study Purpose & Research Questions
Research Questions:
RQ1: Which cybersecurity measures can private-sector organizations use to protect the organization’s intellectual property,
partner’s proprietary information, and customer’s personally identifiable information to maintain stakeholder trust?!
RQ2: How do private-sector organizations implement cybersecurity-trust measures to remain competitive in industry? !
Study Purpose:
To examine the cybersecurity measures used by varying organizations to determine which cybersecurity measures maintain
consumers’ trust in private-sector organizations and what methods work to implement the identified cybersecurity-trust
measures into the organizations’ business practices. !
Technical
Measures
IP
PI
PII
Law
Enforcement
Collaboration
Strategy
Education &
Training
Communication
ORA ORA
Polic
The search for the grail: Scaling social impact
No full textThis presentation presents an evidence-based approach to identifying what works in social media, reveals that leadership and access to capital are mostly necessary to scale but not sufficient; social enterprises must also leverage one of several causal combinations – pathways in which the dynamic interplay of organizational conditions can lead to scale. resource
mobilization
theory
Mission
& Goals
Activities Outputs
Scaled
Impact
Environmental Context
Organizational Inputs
conceptual framework
a theory of change approach to scaling impact
necessary sufficient (causal pathways)
leadership
0.9322
passion &
vision
bricolage
organizational
development
central
authority
sector
experience
access to
capital
0.9032
self
sustaining
3 plus 1
strategy
capital innovation
replication: local
funding
sustained
public &
private
leadership
focus passion
organizational
capacity
professionalize
staff
core
infrastructure
middle
management
strategic
planning
performance
measurement
systematic
measures
share
data
leadership
hero
entrepreneur
scaling
experience
networks &
partnerships
social
networking
opportunity
recognition
access to
capital
scale deep &
wide
cost
recovery
networks &
partnerships
deep &
local ties
&
or
or
organizational pathway
network pathway
capital pathway
leadership (93% of the time) &
access to capital (90% of the
time) are necessary to scale
social impact, but not sufficient
three different causal pathways –
organizational, network, & capital – are
sufficient to achieve scale, and explain 85%
of the variation in scaling social impact
scaling
impact
score
necessary
condition:
leadership
necessary
condition:
access to capital
sufficient
pathways
necessary conditions and sufficient pathways to scale
for 46 social enterprises
EVIDENCE-BASED RESEARCH TO EXAMINE WHAT WORKS
WHAT ORGANIZATIONAL CONDITIONS ARE NECESSARY AND SUFFICIENT TO SCALE SOCIAL IMPACT?
INFORMING PRACTITIONERS AND RESEARCHERS
practitioners
researchers
leadership
access to
capital pathways TOC model
avoiding
failure
replication
founders/leaders may not
have requisite skills to lead
scale efforts
team leadership in scaling:
what contributes to team
success?
innovation in funding scale:
what has and what could
work?
networks & partnerships:
do opportunities arise from
leaders’ networks or the
organization’s networks?
proposition 1:
how does structural capacity
affect scale attempts?
include cost recovery in
business models
build and leverage
social networks
use a theory of change
approach model for scale to
train and plan for scale
mature business models
before attempting scale
ensure local access to capital
prior to scale
use non-operational funds
for scaling
analyze human resources
necessary to scale
proposition 2:
how does structural capacity
affect scale attempts?
may need to develop
leaders or hire new leaders
invest in organizational
capabilities
adhere to a strategic
planning process
share performance data
with key partners
analyzes complex causation, where a range of
outcomes result from various causal pathways
necessity analysis identifies necessary conditions
sufficiency analysis identifies causal pathways
reveals necessary & sufficient conditions to
achieve an outcome
negation analysis identifies paths to failure
alternate analysis identifies other conditions
qualitative comparative
analysis
truth table built & calibrated
excel
data on org inputs extracted
nvivo
Boolean minimization
fsqca
configuration
solutions
this research is a dissertation for the degree of doctor of
management for the University of Maryland
University College
dissertation committee:
Dr. Richard Milter
Dr. James Gelatt
special thanks to:
Katherine Lorenz, Pete Noll, Dr. James Austin
Dr. Laura Witz, Dr. Leslie Dinauer
Dr. Cynthia Thomes, Anthony D’Arrigo
Laura D’Antonio, & Allen Azmoudeh
and especially to
Lauren, Maren, Aubrey, Paxton, & Levi
Eric has been involved in supporting or researching social
enterprise since his 2005 visit to Puente a la Salud
Comunitaria, an NPO in Oaxaca. As part of his MBA
thesis, Eric developed a business plan for a non-profit
rating agency and pitched his proposal for venture capital.
Most recently, Eric presented research on nonprofit
strategic management at Ryerson University in Toronto.
Eric plans to use the findings of this research to help
advise social enterprises on strategy, growth planning, and
of course, succeeding at going to scale.
[email protected]
571-882-3732
Linkedin: https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-miller-4a4401a
The quest for the grail seeks to understand why and how some social enterprises successfully scale social
impact and yet others fail. In addressing societal problems, social enterprises first pilot solutions in a local
context, but when attempting to spread social impact to better meet society’s needs, face myriad challenges
arising from the conditions of environmental forces, organizational capabilities, and geographic contexts.
A theory of change approach to scaling social impact offers a way to understand these challenges, and
examine the dynamic interplay between conditions that affect attempts to scale. A systematic review of scaling
literature, and a qualitative comparative analysis of forty-six scaling case studies assimilates existing knowledge
of how social enterprises have achieved scale in the field of practice to determine the organizational conditions
necessary and sufficient to achieve scale.
This evidence-based approach to identifying what works reveals that leadership and access to capital are
mostly necessary to scale but not sufficient; social enterprises must also leverage one of several causal
combinations – pathways in which the dynamic interplay of organizational conditions can lead to
scale. Informed by these results, social entrepreneurs and social enterprises may better plan and strategize for
scale, improve communication to funders and stakeholders, and align and invest in organizational capabilities
to maximize scale potential.
eric w miller
THE SEARCH FOR THE GRAIL: SCALING SOCIAL IMPACT
lack of knowledge
and resources
driven to spread
value & impact
social
value
output of a social enterprise
provides an immediate benefit
customer or beneficiary focused
social
impact
outcome of a social enterprise
improves the lives of those affected
environment or context focused
&
many scale
attempts fail
positive theory
of social
entrepreneurship
project abstract
unmet by governments
or private sector
address societal
problems
social
entrepreneurs
individuals driven to create social value
recognize and pursue new opportunities
accountable to constituencies served
social
enterprises
organizations with solutions to social problems
pilot new ideas in a local context first
generate a social “return on investments”
&
pilot solutions to
create value & impact
The NEED
The PROBLEM
how & why a
process works
a theory of change
approach to scale
research gap: what works?
what doesn’t?
functional scaling
expands the number and types of activities
organizational scaling
improves effectiveness of activities
quantitative scaling
expands by increasing base or geographic area
political scaling
tackles structural causes of the problem
going to scale
The APPROACH
The APPLICATION
about this research
The RESULTS
search strategies
30 databases
chain sampling
case repositories
scaling impact cases
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1
1
1
1
1
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1
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2
2
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The METHODOLOG
The role of trust & collaboration toward innovation in outsourced manufacturing supply chains
No full textExamine the role of trust and collaboration toward innovation in outsourced manufacturing supply chains.The Role of Trust & Collaboration Toward Innovation in Outsourced Manufacturing Supply Chains The Role of Trust & Collaboration Toward Innovation in Outsourced Manufacturing Supply ChainsThe Role of Trust & Collaboration Toward Innovation in Outsourced Manufacturing Supply Chains The Role of Trust & Collaboration Toward Innovation in Outsourced Manufacturing Supply ChainsThe Role of Trust & Collaboration Toward Innovation in Outsourced Manufacturing Supply Chains The Role of Trust & Collaboration Toward Innovation in Outsourced Manufacturing Supply ChainsThe Role of Trust & Collaboration Toward Innovation in Outsourced Manufacturing Supply Chains The Role of Trust & Collaboration Toward Innovation in Outsourced Manufacturing Supply ChainsThe Role of Trust & Collaboration Toward Innovation in Outsourced Manufacturing Supply Chains The Role of Trust & Collaboration Toward Innovation in Outsourced Manufacturing Supply Chains The Role of Trust & Collaboration Toward Innovation in Outsourced Manufacturing Supply Chains The Role of Trust & Collaboration Toward Innovation in Outsourced Manufacturing Supply ChainsThe Role of Trust & Collaboration Toward Innovation in Outsourced Manufacturing Supply ChainsThe Role of Trust & Collaboration Toward Innovation in Outsourced Manufacturing Supply ChainsThe Role of Trust & Collaboration Toward Innovation in Outsourced Manufacturing Supply ChainsThe Role of Trust & Collaboration Toward Innovation in Outsourced Manufacturing Supply Chains The Role of Trust & Collaboration Toward Innovation in Outsourced Manufacturing Supply ChainsThe Role of Trust & Collaboration Toward Innovation in Outsourced Manufacturing Supply Chains The Role of Trust & Collaboration Toward Innovation in Outsourced Manufacturing Supply ChainsThe Role of Trust & Collaboration Toward Innovation in Outsourced Manufacturing Supply ChainsThe Role of Trust & Collaboration Toward Innovation in Outsourced Manufacturing Supply Chains The Role of Trust & Collaboration Toward Innovation in Outsourced Manufacturing Supply ChainsThe Role of Trust & Collaboration Toward Innovation in Outsourced Manufacturing Supply ChainsThe Role of Trust & Collaboration Toward Innovation in Outsourced Manufacturing Supply ChainsThe Role of Trust & Collaboration Toward Innovation in Outsourced Manufacturing Supply ChainsThe Role of Trust & Collaboration Toward Innovation in Outsourced Manufacturing Supply ChainsThe Role of Trust & Collaboration Toward Innovation in Outsourced Manufacturing Supply ChainsThe Role of Trust & Collaboration Toward Innovation in Outsourced Manufacturing Supply ChainsThe Role of Trust & Collaboration Toward Innovation in Outsourced Manufacturing Supply ChainsThe Role of Trust & Collaboration Toward Innovation in Outsourced Manufacturing Supply Chains The Role of Trust & Collaboration Toward Innovation in Outsourced Manufacturing Supply ChainsThe Role of Trust & Collaboration Toward Innovation in Outsourced Manufacturing Supply ChainsThe Role of Trust & Collaboration Toward Innovation in Outsourced Manufacturing Supply Chains The Role of Trust & Collaboration Toward Innovation in Outsourced Manufacturing Supply Chains The Role of Trust & Collaboration Toward Innovation in Outsourced Manufacturing Supply Chains The Role of Trust & Collaboration Toward Innovation in Outsourced Manufacturing Supply ChainsThe Role of Trust & Collaboration Toward Innovation in Outsourced Manufacturing Supply Chains The Role of Trust & Collaboration Toward Innovation in Outsourced Manufacturing Supply Chains The Role of Trust & Collaboration Toward Innovation in Outsourced Manufacturing Supply ChainsThe Role of Trust & Collaboration Toward Innovation in Outsourced Manufacturing Supply Chains The Role of Trust & Collaboration Toward Innovation in Outsourced Manufacturing Supply Chains The Role of Trust & Collaboration Toward Innovation in Outsourced Manufacturing Supply Chains The Role of Trust & Collaboration Toward Innovation in Outsourced Manufacturing Supply Chains The Role of Trust & Collaboration Toward Innovation in Outsourced Manufacturing Supply ChainsThe Role of Trust & Collaboration Toward Innovation in Outsourced Manufacturing Supply Chains The Role of Trust & Collaboration Toward Innovation in Outsourced Manufacturing Supply Chains The Role of Trust & Collaboration Toward Innovation in Outsourced Manufacturing Supply Chains The Role of Trust & Collaboration Toward Innovation in Outsourced Manufacturing Supply ChainsThe Role of Trust & Collaboration Toward Innovation in Outsourced Manufacturing Supply Chains
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Factors to consider when balancing campus safety concerns with students' civil rights
No full textOn April 16, 2007, a student at Virginia Tech University, known to be mentally ill, went on a rampage shooting 49 people on campus before taking his own life. When it was over, 32 people were dead, and the concept of a safe campus was forever changed. The incident revealed the inherent conflicts between campus safety concerns and students’ civil rights, an issue campus across the nation have grappled with over the past 10 years. Public colleges, which are legally viewed as quasi-governmental entities, must satisfy the civil rights compliance requirements that apply to governmental entities. Community colleges have the additional challenge of maintaining a reasonably safe campus while preserving the mission of “open access.” Efforts to balance campus safety concerns with students’ civil rights have been unsuccessful and have caused confusion, chaos, and litigation.
This dissertation is a critical interpretive synthesis of scholarly, legal, and grey literature research that addresses the tension between campus safety concerns and students’ civil rights. Scholarly resources included peer-reviewed journals. Legal resources included the constitution, federal statutes, federal and state court opinions, federal agency documents, federal reports, and articles from recognized and reliable authors and/or publications. Grey literature included articles from recognized and respected publications that covered current events. Experts provided valuable feedback and guidance on the topic, research and resources.
The dissertation examines civil rights selected based on their tension with campus safety concerns. The civil rights addressed are due process, free speech, gun rights, and privacy. The findings of this dissertation provide guidance on factors to consider when evaluating how best to balance campus safety concerns with students’ civil rights.Factors to Consider when Balancing Campus Safety with Students’ Civil Rights i
Factors to Consider when Balancing Campus Safety Concerns with Students’ Civil Rights
Julia S. Ingersoll
Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of the
University of Maryland University College
In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the
Doctor of Management Degree
Advisory Committee
Gena Glickman, Ph.D.
Trudy Bers, Ph.D.
Factors to Consider when Balancing Campus Safety Concerns with Students’ Civil Rights ii
© Copyright by
Julia S. Ingersoll
2017
Factors to Consider when Balancing Campus Safety Concerns with Students’ Civil Rights iii
Abstract
On April 16, 2007, a student at Virginia Tech University, known to be mentally ill, went on a rampage shooting 49 people on campus before taking his own life. When it was over,
32 people were dead, and the concept of a safe campus was forever changed. The incident revealed the inherent conflicts between campus safety concerns and students’ civil rights, an issue campus across the nation have grappled with over the past 10 years. Public colleges, which are legally viewed as quasi-governmental entities, must satisfy the civil rights compliance requirements that apply to governmental entities. Community colleges have the additional challenge of maintaining a reasonably safe campus while preserving the mission of “open access.” Efforts to balance campus safety concerns with students’ civil rights have been unsuccessful and have caused confusion, chaos, and litigation.
This dissertation is a critical interpretive synthesis of scholarly, legal, and grey literature research that addresses the tension between campus safety concerns and students’ civil rights. Scholarly resources included peer-reviewed journals. Legal resources included the constitution, federal statutes, federal and state court opinions, federal agency documents, federal reports, and articles from recognized and reliable authors and/or publications. Grey literature included articles from recognized and respected publications that covered current events. Experts provided valuable feedback and guidance on the topic, research and resources.
The dissertation examines civil rights selected based on their tension with campus safety concerns. The civil rights addressed are due process, free speech, gun rights, and privacy. The findings of this dissertation provide guidance on factors to consider when evaluating how best to balance campus safety concerns with students’ civil rights.
Factors to Consider when Balancing Campus Safety Concerns with Students’ Civil Rights iv
Dedication
The people for whom I have the greatest gratitude are my family. If life were fair, the doctorate degree would be conferred on a team rather than an individual. My family was the team that made this paper possible. Thank you to my wonderful husband David for being patient, understanding, and supportive. Thank you for editing this paper and thank you for forcing me to take breaks and vacations. Thank you to my daughter for Vera, my art director, image-maker, and proofreader, this paper would not look the way it does without you. Thank you to my sons Colin, Caleb, and Fernando for continuing to provide love, humor and distractions when I needed them most. And, thank you to Lucy, my constant companion who kept my feet warm and made sure that I went outside at least once every few hours.
Factors to Consider when Balancing Campus Safety Concerns with Students’ Civil Rights v
Acknowledgements
This paper would not have been possible without the guidance, inspiration, and support of the faculty of the University of Maryland University College Doctor of Management in Community College Policy and Administration program. I am truly grateful to have had an opportunity to learn from an amazing team of faculty who pushed me to consider, research, question, and re-write, until this paper was the best that it could be. A special thank you is due to Dr. Gena Glickman, my primary advisor who managed to keep me optimistic throughout a trying process, Dr. Susan McMaster who taught me how to organize the editing process, and Dr. Pat Keir who set the bar for this journey in the very first semester and continued to push me to meet the bar in Dissertation II.
A special acknowledgement goes to my classmates. I was fortunate to be in a cohort with a shared sense of humor. The humor, inspiration, tips, and occasional complaints, made it possible to stay motivated through an arduous process.
Factors to Consider when Balancing Campus Safety Concerns with Students’ Civil Rights vi
Table of Contents
Chapter One: Introduction 1
Background 1
The Historical Development of the Safe Campus Concept 1
The Current State of Campus Safety Issues 8
Problem Statement 9
Significance of the Problem 12
Statement of Purpose 17
Theoretical Framework 18
Students’ Civil Rights 18
Students’ Civil Rights Recognized through Stare Decisis 18
Research Question 20
Definition of Terms 20
Summary 22
Chapter Two: Methodology 23
Introduction 23
Choice of Research Methodology 23
The Application of Critical Interpretive Synthesis 25
Question Formulation 25
Literature Search and Review 26
Identification of Relevant Literature 27
Scholarly Research 27
Legal Research 28
Current Events Research 37
Combining Legal Research and Current Events Research 37
Synthesis of Literature 38 Factors to Consider when Balancing Campus Safety Concerns with Students’ Civil Rights vii
Expert Panel Review 39
Summary 40
Chapter Three: Literature Review 41
Introduction 41
Students’ Civil Rights: an Evolving Interpretation 42
Students’ Due Process Rights 47
Students’ Free Speech Rights 55
Students’ Gun Rights 63
Students’ Privacy Rights 66
Colleges’ Responsibilities and Liabilities 75
The Tension between Students’ Civil Rights and Campus Safety Concerns 79
The Conceptual Model 80
Summary 82
Chapter Four: Analysis and Findings 84
Introduction 84
Analysis of Feedback from Expert Panel 84
Findings 88
Students’ Due Process Rights: Considerations for Balancing with Campus Safety 88
Students’ Freedom of Speech Rights: Considerations for Balancing with Campus Safety 94
Students’ Gun Rights: Considerations for Balancing with Campus Safety 98
Students’ Privacy Rights: Considerations for Balancing with Campus Safety 100
Conclusion 102
Factors to Consider when Balancing Campus Safety Concerns with Students’ Civil Rights viii
Chapter Five: Implications for Practice and Suggestions for Future Research 104
Introduction 104
Factors and Recommendations to Consider then Developing Policies and Procedures Designed to Address Campus Safety Concerns 105
Due Process Rights 105
Recommendations for Practitioners 106
Free Speech 107
Recommendations for Practitioners 111
Gun Rights 112
Recommendations for Practitioners 113
Privacy Rights 114
Recommendations for Practitioners 115
Areas for Future Research 116
Conclusions 117
References 119
Factors to Consider when Balancing Campus Safety Concerns with Students’ Civil Rights ix
List of Tables
Table 1. Case Law Search Method 34
Table 2. Civil Rights Controlling Case Law 36
Table 3. Expert Panelists Qualifications 39
Table 4. Results and Use of Expert Panel Review 87
Factors to Consider when Balancing Campus Safety Concerns with Students’ Civil Rights x
List of Figures
Figure 1. Balancing College Safety Concerns with Students’ Civil Rights 26
Figure 2. Mandatory & persuasive authority: A diagram 29
Figure 3. How to do legal research 30
Figure 4. State and federal court systems 31
Figure 5. Sexual Assault and Civil Rights 50
Figure 6. Group: Most Colleges Suppress Speech 62
Figure 7. Student Health Care Privacy 70
Figure 8. Balancing College Safety Concerns with Students’ Civil Rights 80
Figure 9. Cases against Campuses 90
Factors to Consider when Balancing Campus Safety Concerns with Students’ Civil Rights xi
Factors to Consider when Balancing Campus Safety with Students’ Civil Rights 1
Chapter One: Introduction
Over the past fifty years, the responsibility of the public college to balance campus safety concerns and students’ civil rights has changed dramatically. Factors that have influenced this change include the evolving expectations of what constitutes a safe campus and how a college may create a safe campus, the evolving expectations of the college’s requirement to recognize the civil rights of students, evolving court decisions that have overruled historical precedents, and the evolving role that the government has taken in both regulating campus safety and recognizing students’ rights. These factors have combined to create a complex and sometimes-contradictory mix of regulatory requirements, student expectations, and college responsibilities.
Background
The Historical Development of the Safe Campus Concept
To understand the current concept of the safe campus, it is helpful to review the historical development of the concept. Prior to the 1960’s the concept of a safe college expanded from a consideration limited to the maintenance of campus facilities, to a broader consideration that included student behavior.
● The Original Safe Campus Concept: The College Watchman
Until 1894, administrators, faculty and students were not directly involved in issues concerning campus safety. Safety issues were perceived to be limited to issues concerning the physical plant. Campus safety concerns and issues were the responsibility of employees who acted as elevated custodians. The elevated custodians were typically referred to as “watchmen” in that their primary responsibility was to watch the facilities to ensure that they were secure and to address service issues (e.g. boilers, electricity, etc.) (Hopkins & Neff, 2014, p. 126). Factors to Consider when Balancing Campus Safety Concerns with Students’ Civil Rights 2
Watchmen had minimal interaction with students and faculty, and the community did not perceive watchmen to have any role or responsibilities that would create interactions with individuals outside of the college campus.
Students did not perceive the watchmen as having any authority outside of facilities. Safety issues connected to student behavior were addressed by college administrators (Hopkins & Neff, 2014). In 1894 the role of the watchmen began to evolve when Yale University hired two local police officers to serve as the campus security force. This change was a response to problematic relations between students and the New Haven police. Other colleges observed Yale’s approach and adopted the practice of hiring local law enforcement to serve as campus security officers (Hopkins & Neff, 2014).
● The Historical Absence of Students’ Civil Rights
Colleges were able to operate successfully without formal campus safety offices due in part to the doctrine of “in loco parentis,” which means “in the place of the parents.” In loco parentis has historical roots in the 1700s when English schools developed the doctrine to define the relationship between the student and the school. William Blackstone (1765), a legal scholar studied by both British and American lawyers, noted:
[A parent] may delegate part of his parental authority, during his life, to the tutor or schoolmaster of his child; who is then in loco parentis, and had such a portion of the power of the parent committed to his charge, viz. that of restraint and correction, as may be necessary to answer the purposes for which he is employed (p. 441).
The application of in loco parentis to higher education allowed college administrators to act (in relation to the students) with the authority of a parent. As such, disciplinary actions determined by the college did not require any type of due process or recognition of the students’ Factors to Consider when Balancing Campus Safety Concerns with Students’ Civil Rights 3
civil rights (Lake, 1999). Colleges actively exercised their quasi-parental powers by regulating students’ civil rights to speech, association, and movement. Common regulations included curfews, socialization regulations, and dress regulations. Without due process rights, students could not question the exercise of power within the college, or question the exercise of power outside of the college in the court system (Lee, 2011). Colleges had no formal process for deciding when local law enforcement would be contacted.
Students rarely contested college regulations or determinations of expulsion. Students who did contest faced a difficult battle. As Lake (1999) noted, “colleges typically won cases even when rules were vague, imprecise, and salutary, and when enforcement of rules was so procedurally casual that it bordered upon arbitrariness and capriciousness” (p. 5).
● The Recognition of Students’ Civil Rights
The powers afforded by the doctrine of in loco parentis were first seriously limited in the 1961 case of Dixon v. Alabama. That case concerned the appeal of a group of African American students who had been dismissed from Alabama State College for participating in a civil rights demonstration. The students argued that the college was acting as the state in violating their right to due process. The United States Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit agreed and noted specific procedural protections recommended for state colleges to follow in the event of a student expulsion (Lee, 2011).
In 1967, the doctrine of in loco parentis was challenged on due process grounds in the case of Goldberg v. Regents of the University of California. The court held: “there are no considerations of immediate danger to the public or of peril to the national security that would prevent the college authorities from exercising at least the fundamental principles of fairness by giving the accused students notice of the charges and an opportunity to be heard in their own Factors to Consider when Balancing Campus Safety Concerns with Students’ Civil Rights 4
defense” Goldberg v. Regents of the University of California, 1967, p. 881). A year later, the District Court of Colorado held, “the doctrine of ‘In Loco Parentis’ is no longer tenable in a university community...we do not subscribe to the notion that a citizen surrenders his civil rights upon enrollment as a student in a university” (Buttny v. Smiley, 1968, p. 286).
Throughout the 1960s court cases, campus protests, and the public movement towards social equality, led many to question the application of in loco parentis to higher education (Lee, 2011). As colleges shifted away from the doctrine of in loco parentis, the relationship between the college and the student shifted, and with it the liability that a college would have for a student shifted. Colleges could no longer act without concern for students’ civil rights. Colleges were no longer viewed as alternative parents. Colleges were now expected to recognize and respect the civil rights of students. The historical shift was noted in the Bradshaw v. Rawlings case (1979), where the concept of in loco parentis and the rights it afforded to colleges was described by the United States Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit in the past tense:
There was a time when college administrators and faculties assumed a role in loco parentis. Students were committed to their charge because the students were considered minors. A special relationship was created between college and student that imposed a duty on the on the college to exercise control over student conduct and, reciprocally, gave the students certain rights of protection by the college (1979, p. 139-140).
The court went on to identify two key changes in the relationship between students and colleges that ended any argument regarding a special relationship “the modern American college is not an insurer of the safety of its students… society considers the modern college student an adult, not a child” (p. 138, 140).
While the doctrine of in loco parentis was being challenged in court, social unrest and Factors to Consider when Balancing Campus Safety Concerns with Students’ Civil Rights 5
student protests were challenging orderly operations on college campuses. In November 1965, a student protest at Berkeley met with a heavy police presence devolved into a riot (Engler, 2015). Student protests continued. In 1969 a Berkeley student protest resulted in one death and hundreds of injuries (Engler, 2015). In May 1970, four students were killed by the National Guard at Kent State University when the national guard was called in to restore order (Sloan & Fisher, 2014). Student protests were viewed as examples of the problems within higher education (Engler, 2015; Sloan & Fisher, 2014). In California, Governor Reagan referred to student protesters as “criminals” (Engler, 2015, p. 8). In Ohio, Governor Rhodes declared martial law and described the student protesters as "worse than the 'brownshirt' and the Communist element and also the night-riders in the vigilantes...the worst type of people that we harbor in America," (Newsweek, 2015, p. 1). In an attempt to manage campus security with college personnel, and to avoid reliance on local law enforcement, colleges focused on developing professional security forces (Anderson, 2015). During that time, according to Hopkins and Neff (2014), “colleges began to create university police forces, complete with well-educated, law enforcement trained police officers responsible for full-fledged law enforcement on campus” (p.128). The process of professionalizing the campus safety office connected it to the campus judicial system without defining how the college would balance safety concerns with students’ civil rights. As Carlson noted, “colleges are the only American institutions that can create a private police force, and under campus control, these cops prop up a system of justice that is not accountable to elected officials” (2015). Wilson and Wilson echoed Mangan’s observations and added “in no other environment are the perceptions of the role of law enforcement officers and their authority as convoluted and contested as in the academic setting” (2011). Factors to Consider when Balancing Campus Safety Concerns with Students’ Civil Rights 6
● The Government’s Role in Campus Safety
As campus safety departments evolved, the public’s expectations of safe campuses also evolved. Specific regulations were developed and implemented to formalize safety procedures and ensure recognition of students’ civil rights. The expectation of public information on the safety of campuses was codified by federal statute in 1990 with the passage of the Crime Awareness and Campus Security Act. The Act required colleges to disclose statistical information on campus crimes. The act was subsequently amended twice to add more detailed requirements for information disclosure and to establish a “Bill of Rights” for sexual assault victims. The second amendment to the act, which occurred in 1998, included the renaming of the law to the “Clery Act” (Clery Act 1990; Jeanne Clery Disclosure of Campus Security and Campus Crime Statistics Act, 1998). In addition to the Clery Act, the Violence Against Women Act (1994) (VAWA), the expanded interpretation of Title IX (Dear Colleague letter, 2011), and passage of the SaVE Act (Campus Sexual Violence Elimination Act, 2013), heightened expectations for both the responsibilities of the campus safety office and the recognition of students’ civil rights.
As federal regulations focused on sexual violence, another form of violence became more commonplace on college campuses: gun violence. In 2007, a student at Virginia Tech went on a deadly rampage, killing 32 students and faculty members before killing himself (Gardner, Wilgoren & Schneider, 2007). In the first 10 months of 2015, there were 23 shootings on college campuses. Five of those shootings occurred on community college campuses (Sanburn, 2015). At Sacramento Community College two people were shot, one fatally (Reed & Brennan, 2015). At Umpqua Community College, a student shot 18 people. Eight students and one professor
More than just a number: Using data effectively
No full textThis presentation asks what strategies can institutional leaders adopt to foster and improve the use of data about student progress and performance and to improve their success.More Than Just a Number: Using Data Effectively More Than Just a Number: Using Data Effectively More Than Just a Number: Using Data Effectively The Problem
Colleges have been admonished to use data inform Colleges have been admonished to use data inform Colleges have been admonished to use data inform Colleges have been admonished to use data inform Colleges have been admonished to use data inform Colleges have been admonished to use data inform Colleges have been admonished to use data inform Colleges have been admonished to use data inform Colleges have been admonished to use data inform Colleges have been admonished to use data inform Colleges have been admonished to use data inform Colleges have been admonished to use data inform Colleges have been admonished to use data inform Colleges have been admonished to use data inform decisions about programs and services to improve success. decisions about programs and services to improve success. decisions about programs and services to improve success. decisions about programs and services to improve success. decisions about programs and services to improve success. decisions about programs and services to improve success. decisions about programs and services to improve success. decisions about programs and services to improve success. decisions about programs and services to improve success. decisions about programs and services to improve success. decisions about programs and services to improve success. decisions about programs and services to improve success. decisions about programs and services to improve success. decisions about programs and services to improve success. Numerous organizations are compiling and disseminating Numerous organizations are compiling and disseminating Numerous organizations are compiling and disseminating Numerous organizations are compiling and disseminating Numerous organizations are compiling and disseminating Numerous organizations are compiling and disseminating Numerous organizations are compiling and disseminating Numerous organizations are compiling and disseminating Numerous organizations are compiling and disseminating Numerous organizations are compiling and disseminating Numerous organizations are compiling and disseminating Numerous organizations are compiling and disseminating Numerous organizations are compiling and disseminating Numerous organizations are compiling and disseminating Numerous organizations are compiling and disseminating Numerous organizations are compiling and disseminating Numerous organizations are compiling and disseminating Numerous organizations are compiling and disseminating data that are often burdensome for colleges to collect. The data that are often burdensome for colleges to collect. The data that are often burdensome for colleges to collect. The data that are often burdensome for colleges to collect. The data that are often burdensome for colleges to collect. The data that are often burdensome for colleges to collect. The data that are often burdensome for colleges to collect. The data that are often burdensome for colleges to collect. The data that are often burdensome for colleges to collect. The data that are often burdensome for colleges to collect. The data that are often burdensome for colleges to collect. The data that are often burdensome for colleges to collect. The data that are often burdensome for colleges to collect. The data that are often burdensome for colleges to collect. The data that are often burdensome for colleges to collect. The problem is that colleges and their leaders are busy problem is that colleges and their leaders are busy problem is that colleges and their leaders are busy problem is that colleges and their leaders are busy problem is that colleges and their leaders are busy problem is that colleges and their leaders are busy problem is that colleges and their leaders are busy problem is that colleges and their leaders are busy problem is that colleges and their leaders are busy problem is that colleges and their leaders are busy collecting data, but not using it effectively to improve collecting data, but not using it effectively to improve collecting data, but not using it effectively to improve collecting data, but not using it effectively to improve collecting data, but not using it effectively to improve collecting data, but not using it effectively to improve collecting data, but not using it effectively to improve collecting data, but not using it effectively to improve collecting data, but not using it effectively to improve collecting data, but not using it effectively to improve collecting data, but not using it effectively to improve collecting data, but not using it effectively to improve collecting data, but not using it effectively to improve collecting data, but not using it effectively to improve collecting data, but not using it effectively to improve collecting data, but not using it effectively to improve completion rates. completion rates. completion rates. completion rates. completion rates. completion rates. Findings RQ 2
Reverse Engineer Reverse Engineer Reverse Engineer
Democratization of data Democratization of data Democratization of data Democratization of dataDemocratization of data Democratization of data Democratization of data
Address Issues of capacity and challenges/barriers Address Issues of capacity and challenges/barriers Address Issues of capacity and challenges/barriers Address Issues of capacity and challenges/barriers Address Issues of capacity and challenges/barriers Address Issues of capacity and challenges/barriers Address Issues of capacity and challenges/barriers Address Issues of capacity and challenges/barriers Address Issues of capacity and challenges/barriers Address Issues of capacity and challenges/barriers Address Issues of capacity and challenges/barriers Address Issues of capacity and challenges/barriers Address Issues of capacity and challenges/barriers Address Issues of capacity and challenges/barriers
Scaled Interventions Scaled Interventions Scaled Interventions Scaled Interventions Scaled Interventions Implications for Practitioners Implications for Practitioners
Address the barriers to effective data use. Address the barriers to effective data use. Address the barriers to effective data use.Address the barriers to effective data use. Address the barriers to effective data use. Address the barriers to effective data use. Address the barriers to effective data use. Address the barriers to effective data use. Address the barriers to effective data use. Address the barriers to effective data use.
• Inaccessible data Inaccessible data Inaccessible data Inaccessible data
• Inadequate IR staff Inadequate IR staff Inadequate IR staff Inadequate IR staff Inadequate IR staff
• Lack of understanding for how to use data Lack of understanding for how to use data Lack of understanding for how to use data Lack of understanding for how to use data Lack of understanding for how to use data Lack of understanding for how to use data Lack of understanding for how to use data Lack of understanding for how to use data Lack of understanding for how to use dataLack of understanding for how to use data Lack of understanding for how to use data
Continued advocacy for the community college mission Continued advocacy for the community college mission Continued advocacy for the community college mission Continued advocacy for the community college mission Continued advocacy for the community college mission Continued advocacy for the community college mission Continued advocacy for the community college mission Continued advocacy for the community college mission Continued advocacy for the community college mission Continued advocacy for the community college mission while addressing the needs of stakeholders while addressing the needs of stakeholders while addressing the needs of stakeholders while addressing the needs of stakeholders while addressing the needs of stakeholders while addressing the needs of stakeholders while addressing the needs of stakeholders while addressing the needs of stakeholders
Sara Thompson Tweedy Sara Thompson Tweedy Sara Thompson TweedySara Thompson Tweedy
The Graduate School The Graduate School The Graduate School The Graduate School
University of Maryland College, Adelphi, MD University of Maryland College, Adelphi, MD University of Maryland College, Adelphi, MD University of Maryland College, Adelphi, MD University of Maryland College, Adelphi, MD University of Maryland College, Adelphi, MD University of Maryland College, Adelphi, MD University of Maryland College, Adelphi, MDUniversity of Maryland University College, Adelphi, MD University of Maryland College, Adelphi, MD University of Maryland College, Adelphi, MD University of Maryland College, Adelphi, MD University of Maryland College, Adelphi, MD University of Maryland College, Adelphi, MD Findings RQ 1
Compliance and Transparency Compliance and Transparency Compliance and Transparency Compliance and TransparencyCompliance and Transparency Compliance and Transparency Compliance and Transparency
Policy & Practice Policy & Practice Policy & Practice
Addressing Equity Gaps Addressing Equity Gaps Addressing Equity Gaps Addressing Equity Gaps
Accreditation Accreditation Accreditation
Budget & Resource Allocation Budget & Resource Allocation Budget & Resource Allocation Budget & Resource Allocation Budget & Resource Allocation Budget & Resource Allocation
Academic Planning & Review Academic Planning & Review Academic Planning & Review Academic Planning & ReviewAcademic Planning & Review Academic Planning & Review
Monitor progress through Dev Ed & Gateway Courses Monitor progress through Dev Ed & Gateway Courses Monitor progress through Dev Ed & Gateway Courses Monitor progress through Dev Ed & Gateway Courses Monitor progress through Dev Ed & Gateway Courses Monitor progress through Dev Ed & Gateway Courses Monitor progress through Dev Ed & Gateway Courses Monitor progress through Dev Ed & Gateway Courses Monitor progress through Dev Ed & Gateway Courses Monitor progress through Dev Ed & Gateway Courses Monitor progress through Dev Ed & Gateway Courses Monitor progress through Dev Ed & Gateway Courses Research Questions Research Questions
1. How are data used for the purpose of 1. How are data used for the purpose of 1. How are data used for the purpose of 1. How are data used for the purpose of 1. How are data used for the purpose of 1. How are data used for the purpose of 1. How are data used for the purpose of
• Accountability Accountability Accountability Accountability
• Institutional effectiveness Institutional effectiveness Institutional effectiveness Institutional effectiveness Institutional effectiveness Institutional effectiveness Institutional effectiveness Institutional effectiveness Institutional effectiveness
• Student tracking and progress monitoring Student tracking and progress monitoring Student tracking and progress monitoringStudent tracking and progress monitoring Student tracking and progress monitoring Student tracking and progress monitoringStudent tracking and progress monitoring Student tracking and progress monitoring Student tracking and progress monitoring Student tracking and progress monitoring Student tracking and progress monitoring Student tracking and progress monitoring
2. What strategies can institutional leaders adopt to foster 2. What strategies can institutional leaders adopt to foster 2. What strategies can institutional leaders adopt to foster 2. What strategies can institutional leaders adopt to foster 2. What strategies can institutional leaders adopt to foster 2. What strategies can institutional leaders adopt to foster 2. What strategies can institutional leaders adopt to foster 2. What strategies can institutional leaders adopt to foster 2. What strategies can institutional leaders adopt to foster 2. What strategies can institutional leaders adopt to foster 2. What strategies can institutional leaders adopt to foster 2. What strategies can institutional leaders adopt to foster 2. What strategies can institutional leaders adopt to foster 2. What strategies can institutional leaders adopt to foster 2. What strategies can institutional leaders adopt to foster 2. What strategies can institutional leaders adopt to foster and improve the use of data about student progress and improve the use of data about student progress and improve the use of data about student progress and improve the use of data about student progress and improve the use of data about student progress and improve the use of data about student progress and improve the use of data about student progress performance and to improve their success? performance and to improve their success? performance and to improve their success? performance and to improve their success?performance and to improve their success? performance and to improve their success? performance and to improve their success? performance and to improve their success? performance and to improve their success? performance and to improve their success?Method
Critical Interpretive Synthesis Critical Interpretive SynthesisCritical Interpretive Synthesis Critical Interpretive Synthesis Critical Interpretive Synthesis Critical Interpretive Synthesis Critical Interpretive Synthesis
Keyword Search Keyword Search Keyword Search
Data and Accountability Data and Accountability Data and Accountability Data and Accountability Data and Accountability Measuring and Student Progress Measuring and Student Progress Measuring and Student Progress Measuring and Student Progress Measuring and Student Progress
Institutional Effectiveness Institutional Effectiveness Institutional Effectiveness
Student tracking
Progress Monitoring Progress Monitoring
Accreditation Accreditation Accreditation
Relevant to community colleges Relevant to community colleges Relevant to community colleges Relevant to community colleges
Case Study Case StudyCase Study Case Study
Three Leah Austin Meyer award winning colleges Three Leah Austin Meyer award winning colleges Three Leah Austin Meyer award winning colleges Three Leah Austin Meyer award winning colleges Three Leah Austin Meyer award winning colleges Three Leah Austin Meyer award winning colleges Three Leah Austin Meyer award winning colleges
Interviews of college leaders Interviews of college leaders Interviews of college leaders Interviews of college leaders Implications for Scholars Implications for Scholars
Plethora of untested models and theories Plethora of untested models and theories Plethora of untested models and theories Plethora of untested models and theories Plethora of untested models and theories Plethora of untested models and theories Plethora of untested models and theories Plethora of untested models and theories
Dearth of research as to how community college leaders Dearth of research as to how community college leaders Dearth of research as to how community college leaders Dearth of research as to how community college leaders Dearth of research as to how community college leaders Dearth of research as to how community college leaders Dearth of research as to how community college leaders Dearth of research as to how community college leaders Dearth of research as to how community college leaders collect, analyze, and use data collect, analyze, and use data collect, analyze, and use data collect, analyze, and use data collect, analyze, and use data collect, analyze, and use datacollect, analyze, and use data collect, analyze, and use data
• Empowered Empowered stakeholders stakeholders stakeholders
• Actions at Actions at Scale
• Accessible Accessible
• Accurate
• Actionable
• TechnologyTechnology Technology
• Capacity of IR & IT
Collection Collection of Data
Charact -eristics eristics eristicsof Data
Analysis of Data
Taking Taking Action with Data with Data
Use of Data Use of Data Use of Data
Data
Stakeholder Theory: Identify Stakeholder Theory: Identify Stakeholder Theory: Identify Stakeholder Theory: Identify Stakeholder Theory: Identify Stakeholder Theory: Identify Stakeholder Theory: Identify Stakeholder Theory: Identify data needs of stakeholders data needs of stakeholders data needs of stakeholders data needs of stakeholders data needs of stakeholders data needs of stakeholders data needs of stakeholders
Accountability Accountability Accountability
Institutional Effectiveness Institutional Effectiveness Institutional Effectiveness Institutional Effectiveness
Student Tracking Student TrackingStudent Tracking• Spellings Commission Spellings Commission
• Accrediting Agencies
• Performance based funding models Performance based funding models
• Multiple initiatives (VFA and SAM) Multiple initiatives (VFA and SAM) Multiple initiatives (VFA and SAM)
• Completion Rates at 2 Completion Rates at 2 Completion Rates at 2-year Public Colleges based on 150% time to Completion Completion
Impetus for Data Use in Community College Impetus for Data Use in Community College
Cohort
Total 6 Year Total 6 Year Total 6 Year Total 6 Year Total 6 Year Total 6 Year Completion Rate Completion Rate
Fall 2009
19.8
Fall 2010
19.5
Fall 2011 Fall 2011
20
Fall 2012
21.9Colleges have been admonished to use data to inform decisions about programs and services to improve success.
The problem is that colleges and their leaders are busy collecting busy collecting data, but not using it effectively to improve completion rates.
The data would help college leaders understand how to improve student outcomes.
The Promise and Problem of The Promise and Problem of The Promise and Problem of Data UseHow are data used for the purpose of
• Accountability
• Institutional effectiveness Institutional effectiveness
• Student tracking and progress monitoring Student tracking and progress monitoring
What strategies can institutional leaders adopt to foster and improve What strategies can institutional leaders adopt to foster and improve What strategies can institutional leaders adopt to foster and improve the use of data about student progress and performance to the use of data about student progress and performance to the use of data about student progress and performance to the use of data about student progress and performance to the use of data about student progress and performance to improve their success? improve their success?
Research Questions• Critical Interpretive Synthesis
• Case Study
MethodologyAccountability Accountability
•Transparency of Transparency of Transparency of investment/Compliance investment/Compliance investment/Compliance
•Policy Development
•Institutional Performance Institutional Performance
•Addressing equity gaps Addressing equity gaps
•Economic Contribution Economic Contribution
•Accreditation
Institutional Assessment Assessment
•Planning and review Planning and review
•Budgeting and resource Budgeting and resource allocation allocation
•Institutional policy and Institutional policy and practice
•Impact of multimodal Impact of multimodal Impact of multimodal mission
Student Tracking and Student Tracking and Student Tracking and Student Tracking and Progress Monitoring
•Developmental Education Developmental Education
•Gateway Courses Gateway Courses
•Credit Accumulations Credit Accumulations Credit Accumulations
•Retention Retention
•Persistence
•Outcomes
Findings: RQ1 -How are Data Used How are Data Used for the purpose of: for the purpose of:
Government
Public
Policy -makers
Board of Trustees Board of TrusteesBoard of Trustees
Accreditors
Administration
Faculty
Staff Staff
Students
Faculty
Staff Staff
Administrators
StakeholdersResults: RQ2 -Strategies
Access to data Reverse Engineer
Address Issues of IR/IT capacity
•Empowered stakeholders with access to with access to resources
•Reverse Engineer
•Actions at Actions at Scale
•Accessible Accessible
•Accurate
•Actionable
•TechnologyTechnology
•Capacity of Capacity of Capacity of IR & IT
•Professional Development
Collection Collection of Data
Charact -eristics of Data
Analysis of Analysis of Data
Taking Taking Action with DataImplications for Practitioners
Make data accessible
Empower faculty and staff Empower faculty and staff
Direct resources for Action Research Direct resources for Action Research Direct resources for Action Research Direct resources for Action Research Direct resources for Action ResearchDirect resources for Action Research Direct resources for Action Research
Address Barriers Address Barriers• Plethora of untested models and theories Plethora of untested models and theories
• Dearth of research as to how community college leaders collect, analyze, and use data
Implications for Scholar
Strategic corporate social responsibility (CSR) in the service industry: Employing employee engagement in strategy implementation toward enhancing organizational competitive advantage
No full textCorporate Social Responsibility (CSR) represents the direct efforts by a company to improve aspects of society as well as the integral responsibilities that every organization has with respect to primary stakeholders such as employees, customers, investors, suppliers, communities, the environment, and society as a whole. Any time corporate social responsibility as it relates to business is mentioned, scholars and practitioners automatically think about Friedman’s classic statement that “a corporation’s responsibility is to make as much money for the stockholders as possible.” Scholars and practitioners will either justifiably defend or refute Friedman’s position; however, does implementing corporate social responsibility present opportunities or help a firm’s competitive advantage by influencing employee engagement or commitment?
This dissertation examined corporate social responsibility, strategic implications, and their influence on frontline service employee engagement and commitment. Based on the findings, this research determined that corporate social responsibility influences all stakeholders and every aspect of a firm’s operations and managing social demands, and the demands of all stakeholders must be a priority for managers. This goes back to the question of who owns the firm and whose interest should be priority. As the core of business operation, employees should be the primary concern. Managers understand the incentives for adopting positive social and environmental practices as they attempt to reap the benefits of engaged employees. The findings show that different types of CSR initiatives do influence their behavior, attitude, and productivity.Running Head: STRATEGIC CORPORATE SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY AND EMPLOYEE
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Strategic Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) in the Service Industry:
Employing Employee Engagement in Strategy Implementation toward Enhancing Organizational Competitive Advantage
Donald D. Williams
Dissertation submitted to the Faculty of the Graduate School of the
University of Maryland University College
In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Management
Dissertation Advisory Committee:
G. David Andersen, Ed.D.
Eric B. Dent, Ph.D.
Running Head: STRATEGIC CORPORATE SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY AND EMPLOYEE
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Abstract
Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) represents the direct efforts by a company to improve aspects of society as well as the integral responsibilities that every organization has with respect to primary stakeholders such as employees, customers, investors, suppliers, communities, the environment, and society as a whole. Any time corporate social responsibility as it relates to business is mentioned, scholars and practitioners automatically think about Friedman’s classic statement that “a corporation’s responsibility is to make as much money for the stockholders as possible.” Scholars and practitioners will either justifiably defend or refute Friedman’s position; however, does implementing corporate social responsibility present opportunities or help a firm’s competitive advantage by influencing employee engagement or commitment?
This dissertation examined corporate social responsibility, strategic implications, and their influence on frontline service employee engagement and commitment. Based on the findings, this research determined that corporate social responsibility influences all stakeholders and every aspect of a firm’s operations and managing social demands, and the demands of all stakeholders must be a priority for managers. This goes back to the question of who owns the firm and whose interest should be priority. As the core of business operation, employees should be the primary concern. Managers understand the incentives for adopting positive social and environmental practices as they attempt to reap the benefits of engaged employees. The findings show that different types of CSR initiatives do influence their behavior, attitude, and productivity.
Keywords: corporate social responsibility, employee engagement, employee commitmentRunning Head: STRATEGIC CORPORATE SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY AND EMPLOYEE
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I am grateful to everyone that has made this dissertation possible. My deepest appreciation begins with my advisors, Dr. Andersen and Dr. Dent. I have been extremely fortunate to work with Dr. Andersen, the professor who I began this program with back in DMGT 800. He has provided significant comments and advice on the dissertation content, and guided me on how best to reach my readers and structure my dissertation. I am very grateful to subject matter expert, Dr. David Chandler, who despite time constraints was willing to have a phone conversation with me and share his insights on the topic. I would also like to acknowledge that many other professors and teachers’ assistants, and especially my former classmates Terrie Carter, Mark Livingston, Wade McCollin, and Mona Lisa Pinkney at UMUC, played a significant role in this achievement. Each brought his or her own knowledge and perspective to the fascinating subjects we studied in the content courses. It has been a joy to work with all of them. Finally, I would like to thank all the wonderful staff and faculty at UMUC.
Running Head: STRATEGIC CORPORATE SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY AND EMPLOYEE
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Abstract .......................................................................................................................................... 1
Acknowledgments.......................................................................................................................... 3
List of Figures ................................................................................................................................ 7
List of Tables ................................................................................................................................. 8
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW OF THE DISSERTION .......................... 10
Background ....................................................................................................................... 10
Statement and Significance of Problem ............................................................................ 15
Purpose and Scope of the Study........................................................................................ 17
Significance of the Study to Management Practice and Scholarship ............................... 18
Research Questions ........................................................................................................... 19
Research Propositions ....................................................................................................... 20
Discussion of Concepts and/or Themes ............................................................................ 20
Definitions of Terms ......................................................................................................... 22
Corporate Social Responsibility ........................................................................... 22
Corporate Citizenship ........................................................................................... 22
Corporate Social Performance (CSP) ................................................................... 22
Employee Commitment ........................................................................................ 22
Employee Engagement ......................................................................................... 23
External Corporate Social Responsibility ............................................................. 23
Internal Corporate Social Responsibility .............................................................. 23
Summary ........................................................................................................................... 23 Running Head: STRATEGIC CORPORATE SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY AND EMPLOYEE
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Organization of the Dissertation ....................................................................................... 24
CHAPTER 2: METHODOLOGY ................................................................................................ 25
Introduction to Methodology ............................................................................................ 25
Discussion of Evidence-Based Research and Methodology ............................................. 26
Discussion of Scholarly Research Evidence Tools ........................................................... 28
Research Process ................................................................................................... 28
Research Design and Systematic Review Construct ............................................ 28
Evaluation Framework ...................................................................................................... 36
Threats to Validity ................................................................................................ 37
Presentation and Discussion of Expert Panel.................................................................... 38
Introduction ........................................................................................................... 38
Panel Members ...................................................................................................... 38
Panel Member Comments ..................................................................................... 43
Summary ........................................................................................................................... 43
Content of the Next Chapter ............................................................................................. 44
CHAPTER 3: SYSTEMATIC REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE: RESEARCH FRAMEWORK.......................................................................................................................................... 45
Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 45
Structure of the Systematic Review Chapter .................................................................... 46
Identification and Discussion of Theoretical Lenses ........................................................ 46
Theoretical Lenses: Stakeholder Theory and Social Identity Theory ................... 47
Implications for the Dissertation ........................................................................... 49
Critical Review and Evaluation of the Literature ............................................................. 50 Running Head: STRATEGIC CORPORATE SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY AND EMPLOYEE
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Strategic Implications for Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) ...................... 51
The Connection Between CSR and Employee Engagement ................................ 55
The Link Between Competitive Advantage and Corporate Social Responsibility 76
Review of the Research Propositions ............................................................................... 94
Research Proposition 1 ......................................................................................... 94
Research Proposition 2 ......................................................................................... 95
Research Proposition 3 ......................................................................................... 95
Summary of the Systematic Review ................................................................................. 96
Content of Next Chapter ................................................................................................... 96
CHAPTER 4: CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK .......................................................................... 97
Introduction to the Conceptual Framework ...................................................................... 97
The Message in the Literature Review ............................................................................. 99
The Conceptual Framework ............................................................................................ 100
Corporate Strategy and Strategic CSR ................................................................ 101
Employees as a Stakeholder and the Influence of Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) .................................................................................................................................. 101
External and Internal Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) ........................... 102
Corporate Social Performance and Competitive Advantage .............................. 103
Chapter Summary ........................................................................................................... 104
CHAPTER 5: FINDINGS: ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION .................................................. 105
Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 105
Purpose of the Study ....................................................................................................... 105
Presentation, Summary, and Analysis of the Findings ................................................... 106 Running Head: STRATEGIC CORPORATE SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY AND EMPLOYEE
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Findings: Research Question #1 ..................................................................................... 107
Discussion of the Findings .................................................................................. 107
Findings: Research Question #2 ..................................................................................... 111
Discussion of Findings ........................................................................................ 111
Findings: Research Question #3 ..................................................................................... 117
Discussion of Findings ........................................................................................ 117
Conclusion ...................................................................................................................... 120
Alternative Perspectives.................................................................................................. 121
Summary ......................................................................................................................... 122
CHAPTER 6: CONCLUSIONS, IMPLICATIONS AND TRENDS ......................................... 123
Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 123
Overall Conclusions ........................................................................................................ 124
Conclusion #1 ..................................................................................................... 124
Conclusion #2 ..................................................................................................... 125
Conclusion #3 ..................................................................................................... 125
Implications for Management/Practitioner ..................................................................... 127
Implications for Emerging Trends .................................................................................. 128
Limitations and Areas for Future Research .................................................................... 129
Summary ......................................................................................................................... 130
References .................................................................................................................................. 132
Appendix A: Expert Panel Evaluation & Feedback...................................................................148
Running Head: STRATEGIC CORPORATE SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY AND EMPLOYEE
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1. Conceptual framework. ............................................................................................... 102
Running Head: STRATEGIC CORPORATE SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY AND EMPLOYEE
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LIST OF TABLES
Table 1. Keyword(s) Search Table.............................................................................................. 29
Table 2. Systematic Review Table ............................................................................................... 32
Table 3. Expert Panel Information ............................................................................................. 39
Table 4. Study's Research Hypotheses and Dissertation Research Question and Proposition Crosswalk ..................................................................................................................................... 56
Table 5. Study's Research Hypotheses and Dissertation Research Question and Proposition Crosswalk ..................................................................................................................................... 61
Table 6. Study's Research Question/Hypotheses and Dissertation Research Question/Proposition Crosswalk .................................................................................................. 70
Table 7. Study' s Propositions and Dissertation Research Questions Crosswalk ...................... 83
Table 8. Study's Propositions and Dissertation Research Questions Crosswalk ................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Table 9. Study Hypotheses and Dissertation Research Questions Crosswalk ............................ 88
Running Head: STRATEGIC CORPORATE SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY AND EMPLOYEE
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CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW OF THE DISSERTION
Background
“Strategic CSR is a philosophy of management that infuses the firm. All business decisions have economic, social, moral, and ethical dimensions. As such, all firms do strategic CSR, whether they realize it or not; it is just that some firms do it better than others.” Chandler, 2014
Over the past two decades, scholars and managers have dedicated a great deal of attention on corporate social responsibility (CSR) and its strategic implications (Hansen, Dunford, Boss, Boss, & Angermeir, 2011, p. 29; McWilliams, Siegel, & Wright, 200, p. 3). The 2007-2008 financial crisis had a major impact on firms CSR initiatives in many parts due to the impact on a number of stakeholders (i.e., employees) that were affected by the crisis (Jacob, 2012, p. 259). The financial crisis revived the debate made famous by economist Milton Friedman on the social responsibility of corporations to society. Friedman (1970) argued that the social responsibility of business is to increase its profits and corporate executives should not spend someone else’s money in the name of social interest. However, the financial crisis had a clear impact on CSR initiatives due to the pressure faced in having to conduct massive layoffs, implement budget cuts, and sustain its competitive advantage. Without a doubt, employees were one of the main stakeholders affected by the financial crisis, which is why organizations and corporations use CSR practices as strategy to improve on their relations with employees (Simionescu & Dumitrescu, 2014, p. 282). These practices serve effectively in both the profit and service sectors. Running Head: STRATEGIC CORPORATE SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY AND EMPLOYEE
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The power that corporations wield determines how and where people work, the way they structure and live their lives, their standards of health, the security they receive, the quality of the environment, the laws society lives by, and the products and services that are desired and purchased. Corporate decisions directly or indirectly shape the social fabric of America and the rest of the world socially, politically, and economically. But there is a great deal of responsibility that comes with that much power (Davis, 1960, p. 71). Davis, a seminal scholar on modern business and its interrelationships with society, is one of the first scholars to highlight the importance of corporations being socially responsible. According to his “Iron Law of Responsibility,” corporations with greater social power have more social responsibilities, and if they do not meet their social responsibilities, they will risk losing the power they have earned.
Traditionally, success in corporations is measured through corporate profits or some other financial standard—the more profits, the greater the success. Contrary to Davis, economist Friedman in his 1970 New York Times Magazine article, “The Social Responsibility of Business is to Increase its Profits,” advocated for shareholders by arguing that businesses have no responsibility outside of those who have ownership in the company, and a manager’s responsibility is to shareholders. Friedman argued that when corporate managers allow considerations of social responsibility to influence their decisions, they violate their fiduciary obligations to the corporation’s owners, the shareholders (Friedman, 1970).
The origin of this view dates back to Adam Smith’s Wealth of Nations (Smith, 1778). Smith believed that each individual businessperson acting in his own selfish interest would be guided by an “invisible hand” to promote the public good. Smith’s invisible hand theory is often used by economist to explain free market forces. The invisible hand theory states that the individual’s drive to pursue their interest and maximum profits in the competitive marketplace Running Head: STRATEGIC CORPORATE SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY AND EMPLOYEE
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will also promote the good of society and create an environment for business to succeed while operating within the best interest of the public and gr
Towards improved intra-organizational information sharing: The intelligent community college's contact center
No full textIntelligent organizations use their information assets to make knowledge productive. In order to be good stewards of an organization’s knowledge assets, organizational leaders are tasked to design their management structures with knowledge management and information sharing in mind. The past few decades have given birth to concepts such as “learning organization” and “organizational intelligence.” When applied in a higher education setting, scholars have conceptualized “the learning college” and “the intelligent university” (O’Banion, 2007; see also Staškeviciūtė & Neverauskas, 2008a). These organizational constructs are grounded in the creation of a value system for the sharing and utilization of information throughout the organization.
Leaders of 21st century community colleges must be concerned with the information-sharing capacity of their management structures. Drawing upon organizational theory, conceptual models, research experiments, and case studies of knowledge management project implementation, this study seeks to discover intra-organizational information sharing behaviors, barriers, and best practices. Research findings point to culture, trust, fear, values, technology, training, and motivation as factors that influence employees’ information-sharing behaviors. Using the Critical Interpretive Synthesis research methodology, this study proposes a conceptual model that supports using information communications technology as a practical tool to be applied to the construction of the Intelligent Community College.ii
ABSTRACT
Title of Dissertation:
TOWARDS IMPROVED INTRA-ORGANIZATIONAL INFORMATION SHARING: THE INTELLIGENT COMMUNITY COLLEGE’S CONTACT CENTER
Christine A. Hagedorn, 2013
Dissertation Directed By:
Dr. Patricia A. Keir
Intelligent organizations use their information assets to make knowledge productive. In order to be good stewards of an organization’s knowledge assets, organizational leaders are tasked to design their management structures with knowledge management and information sharing in mind. The past few decades have given birth to concepts such as “learning organization” and “organizational intelligence.” When applied in a higher education setting, scholars have conceptualized “the learning college” and “the intelligent university” (O’Banion, 2007; see also Staškevičiūtė & Neverauskas, 2008a). These organizational constructs are grounded in the creation of a value system for the sharing and utilization of information throughout the organization.
Leaders of 21st century community colleges must be concerned with the information-sharing capacity of their management structures. Drawing upon organizational theory, conceptual models, research experiments, and case studies of knowledge management project implementation, this study seeks to discover intra-organizational information sharing behaviors, barriers, and best practices. Research findings point to culture, trust, fear, values, technology, training, and motivation as factors that influence employees’ information-sharing behaviors. iii
Using the Critical Interpretive Synthesis research methodology, this study proposes a conceptual model that supports using information communications technology as a practical tool to be applied to the construction of the Intelligent Community College.
iv
TOWARDS IMPROVED INTRA-ORGANIZATIONAL INFORMATION SHARING: THE INTELLIGENT COMMUNITY COLLEGE’S CONTACT CENTER
By
Christine A. Hagedorn
Dissertation submitted to the Faculty of the Graduate School of the
University of Maryland University College, in partial fulfillment
of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Management
2013
Advisory Committee:
Dr. Patricia A. Keir, Chair
Dr. Michael A. Evanchik
v
© Copyright by
Christine A. Hagedorn
2013 vi
Dedication
All of the reading, writing, and thinking that have gone into this research have been a journey of personal learning and achievement. I dedicate this work to my Mom, Julie Quinn, with gratitude for her critical role in this journey. It was she who first opened the doors of access to higher education for me and my two sisters. We three daughters are truly grateful to her for working so hard and for being so resourceful in order to provide for us that access to post-secondary education. We are grateful for her endless and deep commitment to the continuation of our lifelong learning successes. The dedication of this dissertation to Mom is also in recognition of her ever-available support and encouragement which has sustained me through not only this present higher education journey but through a lifetime of the enjoyment of discovery and learning. vii
Acknowledgements
In order to accomplish a project of this scope, it is sometimes necessary for the author or researcher to draw energy and support from people and circumstances around her. I would like to acknowledge the individuals who have provided to me that energy and support throughout the four years of study involved with this dissertation. There are countless individuals who have provided the needed support and advice. These include members of my immediate and extended family, the faculty and staff at UMUC, colleagues and supervisors at work, old friends and new, Doctor of Management in Community College Policy and Administration (DMCCPA) cohort-mates and fellow students, and the community college students with whom I work daily who are an inspiration and motivation through the examples of their own persistence and success.
It is most important to first to acknowledge my husband and children, Jeff, Alex, and Abby Nordenholt. They deserve my utmost gratitude for patiently and graciously allowing this dissertation to be a guest in our home for these past four years, ever present in our daily lives. I would like to acknowledge the individuals who played a significant role in initially inspiring me to pursue doctoral-level studies: Dr. Frank Brady, Karen Dawkins, the late Rev. Dr. Lyle R. Guttu, the late Dr. Mildred Nelson, Dr. Susan Robinson, Dr. Constance Schuyler, and Dr. Norman Smith. Further, I would like to acknowledge those special individuals whose constant encouragement and advice were instrumental in my ability to persist through and complete this journey. At the top of that list are Dr. Michael Evanchik, Dr. Patricia Keir, Dr. James J. Linksz, and Richard Allen, who graciously read, commented, and helped me to reflect upon multiple iterations of this research as it developed and took shape. Other critical support came in the way of encouragement from Dr. Trudy Behrs, Maxine Brady, Dr. Mary Ellen Duncan, Diane Hagedorn, The Rev. Dr. John Hagedorn, Dr. Jim Henderson, Dr. Lori Hockley, David and Diana viii
Ireland, Dr. Janet Leslie, Dr. Genita Mangum, Dr. Susan McMaster, Shawn Mackin, Ryan Magran, Kevin Newbert, Lisa Lesher, Alice and Roger Morris, Tricia, John, Caroline, Chloe, and John Morris, Dr. Charlene Nunley, Bruce and Ronald Nordenholt, Sarah Roman, Dr. Regina Romero, and Catherine and Ferdinand Wight. ix
Table of Contents
Dedication ..................................................................................................................................... vi
Acknowledgements ....................................................................................................................... vii
Table of Contents ........................................................................................................................... ix
List of Tables ................................................................................................................................ xi
List of Figures .............................................................................................................................. xiii
Chapter 1: Introduction and Research Problem ...............................................................................1
Background and Purpose .............................................................................................................1
Problem Context and Relevance ..................................................................................................6
Significance for Community College Management Practice ....................................................11
Management Theory That Has Provided Perspective on This Problem ....................................25
Organization structure, design, intelligence and learning......................................................25
Systems thinking ....................................................................................................................25
Organizational learning .........................................................................................................27
Organizational identity and integration .................................................................................28
Socio-technical systems analysis ...........................................................................................31
Research Questions ....................................................................................................................34
Organization of This Paper ........................................................................................................35
Chapter 2: Literature Review .........................................................................................................36
Overview ...................................................................................................................................36
How the Method Shaped the Review Itself ...............................................................................36
Problem Formulation .................................................................................................................40
Support for Management Concern with Intra-Organizational Information
Sharing ......................................................................................................................................41
Knowledge Management and Information Sharing in the Context of this Study ......................45
The Learning College ................................................................................................................54
Designing an Intelligent System ................................................................................................58
The Intelligent Organization ......................................................................................................63
Information Communication Technology Usage as Part of the Information
Sharing System ..........................................................................................................................66
Roles of Fear and Trust ..............................................................................................................76
A Networked Organization Structure Design ............................................................................79
The Role of Technology in the Design ......................................................................................84
Service Approaches and Standards ............................................................................................86
Chapter 2 Summary ...................................................................................................................89
Chapter 3: Conceptual Framework and Research Method ............................................................91
Overview ...................................................................................................................................91
Why a Contact Center ICT When There Are So Many Kinds of ICTs? ...................................96
A Descriptive Example of Information Use in a Typical Community College .........................98
“Information” Defined for the Purpose of This Model ............................................................103
ICT Organization Structure Placement ....................................................................................108
Research Questions and Synthetically Constructed Findings Underlying the
Model ......................................................................................................................................113 x
Conclusions ..............................................................................................................................119
Chapter 4. Methods ......................................................................................................................122
Overview .................................................................................................................................122
Critical Interpretive Synthesis .................................................................................................123
Method Phase One: Formulation of Research Questions ........................................................128
Method Phase Two: The Literature Search for Studies ...........................................................131
Method Phase Three: Determining Research Quality .............................................................137
Criteria for inclusion ............................................................................................................139
Decisions about excluding studies .......................................................................................162
Method Phase Four: Creating a Sample or Data Set of Articles for the
Interpretive Synthesis ..............................................................................................................166
Method Phase Five: Content Analysis of the Data Set—Keyword Search .............................167
A Note on Bias .........................................................................................................................171
Use of Experts as Method ........................................................................................................173
Peer Feedback ..........................................................................................................................179
Conclusion ...............................................................................................................................181
Chapter 5. Analysis and Discussion.............................................................................................182
Overview .................................................................................................................................182
Chapter Summary: A Blueprint for Scholar Practitioners .......................................................207
Chapter 6. Recommendations for Future Work ...........................................................................211
Overview .................................................................................................................................211
Areas for Future Research .......................................................................................................215
How Can Contemporary Community College Leaders Use this Research? ...........................221
Getting Started in Developing the Intelligent Community College by
Establishment of a Contact Central .........................................................................................223
References ...................................................................................................................................228
xi
List of Tables
Table 2.1 Comparison of Two Studies That Seek to Understand the Various
Contexts of Usage of the Term Knowledge Management ...........................................47
Table 2.2 A Comparison of the Nie et al. (2009) Knowledge Management (KM)
Contexts and How Each Might Address the Contemporary Higher
Education KM Development Challenges .....................................................................49
Table 4.1 Search Process for this Research Study .....................................................................133
Table 4.2 Continuation of the Literature Search Process...........................................................136
Table 4.3 The CIS Data Set for this Study—Empirical or Evidence-based
Synthesis, Qualitative, Quantitative and Mixed Methods Research ..........................140
Table 4.4 Expert Opinion, Theoretical, and/or Seminal Works Literature Not
Included in the Sample Set Used to Construct the Synthesizing
Argument ...................................................................................................................150
Table 4.5 Results of the Meta-summary Activity Based on Narrative Summaries
in Table 4.4 ................................................................................................................169
Table 4.6 Expert Panel Outreach Project ...................................................................................174
Table 5.1 Why Should Management Be Concerned with Intra-organizational
Information-sharing?..................................................................................................188
Table 5.2 Why Should Higher Education Leaders Be Concerned with
Intra-organizational Information-sharing? .................................................................190
Table 5.3 Synthesis of Findings of Staškevičiūtė and Neverauskas (2008a) and
Myran et al. (1995) Related to Organizational Intelligence and
Organizational Learning as these Affect and are Affected by
Intra-organizational Information Sharing and KM Systems ......................................192
Table 5.4 Comparison of Common Emerging Themes from Research Findings
about Barriers to Intra-Organizational Information Sharing in Two
Different Organization Types ....................................................................................194
Table 5.5 What are the Barriers to Information Sharing in an Organization? ...........................197
Table 5.6 Barriers to Information Sharing in a Higher Education Organization .......................198
xii
Table 5.7 What Strategies and Best Practices Can Assist the Community College
Organization to Be Structured and Acculturated for Effective
Information-sharing?..................................................................................................202
Table 5.8 What Strategies and Best Practices Can Assist the Community College
Organization to be Structured and Acculturated for Effective
Information-sharing?..................................................................................................203
Table 5.9 How Might a Knowledge Management Solution Help to Foster a
Horizontally Integrated Information-sharing System? ..............................................205
Table 6.1 Future Research Questions/Ideas Based on the Literature Review and
Analysis Done for this Study .....................................................................................217
Table 6.2 Practical Implementation of this Model in a Community College Setting ................224
xiii
List of Figures
Figure 3.1. Student seeking basic enrollment information at a college ......................................101
Figure 3.2. A flawed contact center organizational structure placement ....................................105
Figure 3.3. The Contact Central Conceptual Model ...................................................................110
Figure 3.4. The intelligent community college ...........................................................................114
Figure 3.5. Contact Central Model .............................................................................................115
Figure 5.1. Contact Central Logic Model towards the creation of the Contact
Center Conceptual Model and the Intelligent Community College
Product Model ..........................................................................................................208
1
Chapter 1: Introduction and Research Problem
Background and Purpose
Key resources must be wisely managed. For example, the ancient Romans were able to best serve their communities by the construction of systems and channels for water to flow. Water was a prime resource for those communities, and managing its flow afforded its more effective use by its end-users, as it flowed more reliably to those in need of the resource. Similarly, stakeholders of a community college will be best able to make productive use of college knowledge and information resources if systems and channels are constructed through which information may flow to its end users. With such channels in place, colleges will be able to harness incoming market intelligence such as expressed student interest in programs and services. Like the water reservoir, a college’s knowledge and information management mechanism keeps its information resources intact and consistent—in a safe and guarded place—for later distribution on demand; it protects the valuable knowledge assets of the organization. When new information is added to the reservoir, it is assimilated into the pool and becomes part of the supply of information—which is now more robust—that will eventually flow back out through the channels designed for delivery to end-users, thereby delivering to end-users the highest quality information that the organization can produce.
Contemporary organization structures strive to promote the effective flow of information throughout the organization (Drucker, 1990; see also Albrecht, 2003; Palus & Horth, 2002) and to the end users that the organization is designed to serve. The Partnership for 21st Century Skills (2008) report on 21st century education and competiveness discusses how companies have changed the way they are organized and do business, specifically noting that “in respons
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