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Generation Y: Strategies for federal government recruitment and retention
No full textThis presentation explores what strategies government can adopt to recruit and retain Generation Y.Generation Y: Strategies for Federal Government Recruitment and Retention
The Problem for Practitioners
Use Existing federal hiring authorities to increase pay
and incentivize Millennials --
Student Loan Repayment, Recruitment Pay,
Retention Pay, Direct Hire,
Show organizational support of Work Life Balance and
flexible schedules.
Embrace training, mentoring, reverse-mentoring, and
rotational assignments.
Develop strong internet presence using organizational
website and Social Media (ie. Facebook and Twitter).
Use strategic messaging to focus on organizational
culture, values, reputation, social responsibility and
realities of job being advertised.
Ensure competitive pay & compensation and benefits.
Demonstrate significance of the work being done.
Demonstrate organizational commitment to Corporate
Social Responsibility and Employee Empowerment.
Provide positive, constructive feedback often.
Allow autonomy in completion of job.
Findings
Baby Boomers retiring from the federal workforce.
45% of U.S. federal workforce will be eligible for retirement
around 2023.
Generation Y (Millennials or Gen Y) are poised to assume
leadership positions as Baby Boomers retire and Gen X
advances to assume those positions.
Gen Y is currently the smallest among top three in the
federal workforce.
Thus government should take steps to compete with the
private sector to attract and retain this group of talented
professionals.
Gen Y has different life priorities and work motives than
previous generational cohorts thus making it difficult for
organizations to adopt a one-size-fits-all approach to
recruitment and retention.
Finding ways to appeal to Gen Y values and motivations will
help organizations to tap into the potential of a new
generation of leaders.
Recommendations
Cordell C. Francis Jr.
The Graduate School
University of Maryland Global Campus, Adelphi, MD
The Evidence
Systematic review of case studies, gray literature, and primary
research that contained information related to Generation Y
characteristics, life values and work priorities & motivations.
Utilized the UMUC Online Library and ABI INFORM COMPLETE.
Search String: (recruit* OR retain*) AND ("gen* y" OR
millennial*)
Over 500 scholarly, peer-reviewed articles were considered
using inclusion and exclusion criteria and a quality assessment
tool. (See PRISMA chart)
35 articles were critically reviewed.
Quality Assessment Tool -- TAPUPAS
Synthesis: CIMO
Coding Software: ATLAS ti8
Research Question
What Strategies Can Government Adopt to Recruit
and Retain Generation Y?
Major Findings:
Pay & Compensation
Advancement
Secondary Findings (significant although not top findings)
Job Security
Work-Life Balance
Work Conditions
Recognition / Reputation of Organization
Implications for Scholars
More research needed on U.S. federal workforce.
Longitudinal studies would help researchers determine
whether differences are a factor of generational
values/priorities or age based.
Theory
Frederick Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory, also known as
Motivation-Hygiene Theory or intrinsic vs. extrinsic
motivation, states that there are certain factors in the
workplace that can increase job satisfaction and a
separate set of factors that can increase dissatisfaction.
Advisor:
Dr. James Gelatt
Dr. Leslie Dinauer
Records identified through UMUC
database searching
(n = 449)
Included Eligibility Screening Identification
Additional records identified
through ABI INFORM / Complete
(n = 66)
Records after duplicates removed
(n = 427)
Records screened
(n = 427)
Records excluded
(n = 314)
Full-text articles assessed
for eligibility
(n = 113)
Full-text articles excluded,
with reasons
(n = 76)
Full-text articles assessed
for quality
(n = 37)
Studies included in
qualitative synthesis
(n = 35)
Grey literature identified
through other sources
(n = 2)
Full-text articles excluded,
with reasons
(n = 2)
Methodology: Systematic Revie
Leadership styles that eat last impact employee cynicism
No full textPurpose – The purpose of this dissertation was to examine the effects if any, that leadership styles had on employee cynicism. Employee cynicism is a growing concern and possible trend in organizations. However, the impact that leadership styles may have on employee cynicism may be understudied.
Design/Approach – The research was taken from peer reviewed scholarly articles that were found through the databases housed within the University of Maryland Global Campus’ One Search tool. The articles consisted of qualitative and quantitative studies and the quality appraisal was performed through the use of the Weight of Evidence (WoE) tool.
Findings – The findings of this dissertation revealed that leadership styles do impact employee cynicism by way of trust, psychological contract, leader support, employee identification and social connectedness. The main leadership style that was discussed in the research was the Transformational leadership (TL) style. Other leadership styles did appear in the scholarly literature research but none to the extent of TL.
Research limitations/implications – Limitations for this research were: The research was not focused specific geographic regions; hence, culture could have had an impact. None of the studies reviewed were long-range studies, and sample size varied greatly. Implications: This dissertation provides valuable insight into the impact of leadership style on employee cynicism. Organizations should seek to understand that employee cynicism can impact different aspects within the organization and that addressing leadership styles could have a positive effect on cynicism.ABSTRACT
Title of Dissertation:
Leadership Styles That Eat Last Impact Employee Cynicism
Maribel Lee, Doctor of Management 2020
Purpose – The purpose of this dissertation was to examine the effects if any, that leadership styles had on employee cynicism. Employee cynicism is a growing concern and possible trend in organizations. However, the impact that leadership styles may have on employee cynicism may be understudied.
Design/Approach – The research was taken from peer reviewed scholarly articles that were found through the databases housed within the University of Maryland Global Campus’ One Search tool. The articles consisted of qualitative and quantitative studies and the quality appraisal was performed through the use of the Weight of Evidence (WoE) tool.
Findings – The findings of this dissertation revealed that leadership styles do impact employee cynicism by way of trust, psychological contract, leader support, employee identification and social connectedness. The main leadership style that was discussed in the research was the Transformational leadership (TL) style. Other leadership styles did appear in the scholarly literature research but none to the extent of TL.
Research limitations/implications – Limitations for this research were: The research was not focused specific geographic regions; hence, culture could have had an impact. None of the studies reviewed were long-range studies, and sample size varied greatly. Implications: This dissertation provides valuable insight into the impact of leadership style on employee cynicism. Organizations should seek to understand that employee cynicism can impact different aspects within the organization and that addressing leadership styles could have a positive effect on cynicism.
Keywords: Cynicism, employee cynicism, employee identification, leadership style, leadership support, transformational leadership, trust, psychological contract, retention
BREAK
LEADERSHIP STYLES THAT EAT LAST IMPACT EMPLOYEE CYNICISM
By
Maribel S. Lee
Dissertation submitted to the Faculty of the Graduate School of the
University of Maryland University College, in partial fulfillment
of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Business Administration
2020
Email: [email protected] © Copyright by
[Maribel S. Lee]
2020
Leadership Styles That East Last Impact Employee Cynicism
ii
Preface
This dissertation was prepared to fulfill the requirement for the Doctor of Management program of the University of Maryland Global Campus. The purpose was to develop a management solution to a problem that is ongoing in organizations.
The prime focus for this research was to identify if there was a connection between leadership styles and their impact on employee cynicism and retention. Employee cynicism appears to be a concern for organizations. Leaders are focused on different aspects of their organizations and some of those aspects appear to be the need for a greater focus on relationship building, trust, and inspiration on the leader’s behalf. Organizations need to spend the time and money to train and develop their leaders to allow for their development and that relationship building with their employees. The data was taken from systematic literature review of peer reviewed scholarly journals.
Leadership Styles That East Last Impact Employee Cynicism
iii
Dedication
First and foremost, thank you to my Heavenly Father Jesus Christ for giving me strength and will to complete this program. This dissertation is dedicated to my husband, sons, mother and my late father. My father, Frank Joseph Trujillo, was such an inspiration in my life and my cheerleader through every challenge of my life. I appreciated the hard work that he put into making sure that we had everything we needed and wanted. He believed in me before I believed in myself. The love that I have my father, even though he is gone, is beyond words.
My mother, Maria, was such a protective mom. She made sure that I had everything ready every day before school and she kept that protective nature, even to this day. She suffered a lot in her childhood and wanted better for her daughters. School was a big push in my family, and I thank her for keeping me in line. I love her dearly.
My sons, Jonathan W. Beach and Andrew J. Beach, are my motivation in life to keep going. Challenged financially early in life, my generation was able to break through that curse. We broke barriers that no one in previous generations did. This is a great accomplishment! I wanted to break through the barriers to show my sons that no matter the age and the circumstance you can succeed. The only barrier is the one that you place. You must widen your circle every day. There are signs and wonders that are there for the taking.
Finally, this is dedicated to my husband, Johnny Lee. He put up with so much during this three year period. He was that supporter that told me to keep going. He was the one that sat in silence next to me when I was doing homework. Times were rough yet we made it through. Thank you, Lord, for keeping us together. This man is a true supporter of me. I love you very much!
Leadership Styles That East Last Impact Employee Cynicism
iv
Acknowledgements
I would like to first thank my dear husband Johnny and my two sons, Jonathan W. Beach and Andrew J. Beach. Their support meant and means the world to me. Because of them, I know unconditional love. My husband was supportive through this program, especially with all the time I spent on research, class, and residencies. I am nothing without my family. Next, I would like to thank Dr. Subash Bijlani for writing that recommendation letter that gave me the opportunity to be in this program. His belief in me meant the world to me. I will never forget your belief in me Dr. Bijlani.
I can never forget to thank my late father, Frank Joseph Trujillo, and my dear mother, Maria Soltero Trujillo. Both were extremely hard workers in their own skill and did everything to provide for us and give us not just what we needed but also what we wanted. Even though my father is not here, I know that he would be immensely proud of me. Thank you also to my only sibling, Suzanne Trujillo Caver for being supportive in telling me to keep going and also to my wonderful and talented nieces, Annalisa Marie D’Agostino and Sarah Elizabeth Rose. Finally, I would like to acknowledge the University of Maryland Global Campus’ graduate faculty and support staff for bringing this wonderful program and making it enjoyable even through the hardest of times. It is a difficult journey, and you need great people around you that will be there for you to support you and keep pushing you forward. For this reason, I want to thank everyone in my cohort who were that voice that kept telling to keep going. Thank you also Marina Caminis and Dr. Leslie Dinauer for everything that you do and did for the program and the students. Finally, I would like to thank my wonderful mentor Dr. James Gelatt. The help that you provided was priceless. Thank you for everything! Leadership Styles That East Last Impact Employee Cynicism
v
Table of Contents
Preface............................................................................................................................................ ii
Dedication ..................................................................................................................................... iii
Table of Contents ............................................................................................................................ v
List of Tables ............................................................................................................................... viii
Table 1: Journal Focus Inclusion……………………………………………………..………….30..................................................................................................................................................... viii
List of Figures ............................................................................................................................... ix
Conceptual Framework ………………………………………………………………………….2....................................................................................................................................................... ix
Chapter 1: Introduction and Overview of the Management Problem ........................................... 10
Background and Overview ....................................................................................................... 10
Problem Statement and Significance of the Problem ............................................................... 14
The Research Question ............................................................................................................. 15
The rationale for the study ........................................................................................................ 15
Definitions and Terminology .................................................................................................... 16
Organization of the Dissertation & Chapter Summary ............................................................. 16
Chapter 2: Scoping Literature Review and Theoretical Frame .................................................... 18
Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 18
A Review of Relevant Theories ................................................................................................ 18
The Literature Landscape ......................................................................................................... 22
Chapter Summary ..................................................................................................................... 26
Chapter 3: Method ........................................................................................................................ 28 Leadership Styles That East Last Impact Employee Cynicism
vi
The Evidence-Based Research Framework .............................................................................. 28
Review Initiation ....................................................................................................................... 29
Inclusion and exclusion criteria ............................................................................................ 31
Quality Appraisal ...................................................................................................................... 33
Method of quality appraisal of the included studies: Weight of Evidence ........................... 33
Analysis and Synthesis Methodology ....................................................................................... 35
Method of synthesis. ............................................................................................................. 35
Subject Matter Experts .............................................................................................................. 36
Chapter Summary ..................................................................................................................... 36
Review of the Research Question ............................................................................................. 38
Results of the Quality Appraisal of the Data Set ...................................................................... 39
Results of the Synthesis of the Articles in the Data Set ............................................................ 39
Description of the Data Set ....................................................................................................... 39
Chapter Summary ..................................................................................................................... 50
Chapter 5: Conclusions and Implications ..................................................................................... 51
Review of the Research ............................................................................................................ 51
Limitations of the Study and Areas for Future Research .......................................................... 58
Limitations ............................................................................................................................ 58
Areas for future research ....................................................................................................... 58
Final Summary and Conclusion ................................................................................................ 59
References .................................................................................................................................... 60
Appendix A .................................................................................................................................. 72
Table A1: Search Strings .............................................................................................................. 72 Leadership Styles That East Last Impact Employee Cynicism
vii
Table A2: Articles Selected .......................................................................................................... 73
Table A3: Weight of Evidence ..................................................................................................... 77
Table A4: List of Final Articles .................................................................................................... 91
Table A5: Coding, Key Findings & Emergent Themes ................................................................ 98
Appendix B ................................................................................................................................ 100
Table B1: PRISMA Diagram ...................................................................................................... 100
Leadership Styles That East Last Impact Employee Cynicism
viii
List of Tables
Table 1: Journal Focus Inclusion……………………………………………………..………….30
Table 2: Weight of Evidence Measured………………………………………………………….32 Leadership Styles That East Last Impact Employee Cynicism
ix
List of Figures
Conceptual Framework ………………………………………………………………………….2Leadership Styles That East Last Impact Employee Cynicism
10
Chapter 1: Introduction and Overview of the Management Problem
Background and Overview
This dissertation sought to identify if any leadership styles impacted employee cynicism. Many organizations today have begun to focus on employee cynicism. One reason for doing so is clear: Cynicism can have significant implications financially for the organization (Grama & Todericiu, 2016). The focus also reflects the observation that employees are becoming more active in a creative role by supplying some answers to change (Grama & Todericiu, 2016). Leadership that does not engage employees in fostering their organization can result in employees questioning their leaders’ motives; that in turn can create distrust, allowing cynicism to take root (Grama & Todericiu, 2016).
Cynicism has been associated with negative elements such as lack of trust, suspicion, low performance, interpersonal conflicts, alienation, and resignation (Grama & Todericiu, 2016). Cynicism in an organization can create a culture of bad behavior and can become the new norm for the organization. The word cynicism can be traced back to fourth century Greece when the word referenced the followers of Antisthenes who flouted popular opinion or public convictions for the simple sake of doing so; these followers were called cynics (Durrah et al., 2019). According to Stanley et al. (2005), there have been many definitions of cynicism. One definition was that cynics were close-minded and disillusioned people. Concerning cynicism at work, Stanley et al. (2005) found that “cynics at work deeply doubt the truth of what their management tells them, which can make them believe that their companies, given the chance, will take advantage of them.”
There have been four approaches that characterize cynicism in literature:
1. Personality/trait approach Leadership Styles That East Last Impact Employee Cynicism
11
2. Profession/occupation focus
3. Organizational focus
4. Organizational change focus.
Employee cynicism can be a behavior that conveys a negative emotion that can have a direct, and sometimes indirect, impact on the organization (Abugre, 2017). The negative emotion could point to a problem. Employee cynicism can lead to organizational cynicism, which Jiang et al. (2017) described as a negative attitude toward the organization that has three dimensions:
1. Lack of organizational integrity
2. Negative affect toward the organization
3. Demonstrating critical behavior towards the organization
Lack of organization integrity, negative affect toward the organization, and critical behavior toward the organization are characterized by feelings of frustration and hopelessness where employees lack trust in their organization (Jiang et al., 2017). Jiang et al. (2017) found that the main link for this lack of trust was the lack of leadership support. Jiang et al. (2017) also found that since leadership behavior is a crucial indicator of the organization's extent of support, employees may feel that they receive less support.
Stanley et al. (2005) surveyed undergraduate students from one university who were also employed: the survey asked about cynicism and skepticism during organizational change. The study concluded that organizational change cynicism was impacted by previous change failures, which led to employees losing faith in their leaders and in the need for change. Stanley et al. (2005) found that employees believing in their leaders' motives contributed to the organizational change's success. Stanley et al. (2005) found that the communication of organizational change Leadership Styles That East Last Impact Employee Cynicism
12
had an impact as employees sought to understand the reason for the change to see if there were ulterior motives.
Cynicism towards the employees' profession increased with tenure, as was described by Niederhoffer (1967), as "a byproduct of anomie in the social structure" (p.95) due to pressures and role ambiguity, or lack of clarity in one's job, or the enforcement of regulation. Niederhoffer (1967) found that as employee tenure increased, their increasing behaviors signaled their frustration and disillusion with their profession, displaying negative feelings.
Leaders play an essential part in an organization and understanding how leadership styles impact cynicism is crucial (Arslan & Roudaki, 2019). The increased focus on cynicism may result from senior leaders learning that the workforce (employee) is a strategic asset. Employees' attitude regarding their organization is influenced by what they hear and their experiences and available information (Grama & Todericiu, 2016). Manion (2004) found that open-ended processes are those where employees were told what to do and could not share opinions or ideas. Not being able to share or present ideas can make employees just barely comply with their job. Manion (2004) found that when leaders create open-ended processes, employees can sabotage and display other undermining behaviors that can lead to increased cynicism.
Keskes, Sallan, Simo & Fernandez (2018) undertook research that studied whether leadership demonstrated certain behaviors that could help organizations keep employees and align them with their job. Leadership also plays a vital role in building a social connection with employees, fostering trust and relationships, and inspiring them to grow within the organization. Social connection is between the leader and the employee and other employees, other leaders, and mentors within the organization. When this social connectedness and trust are nonexistent, Leadership Styles That East Last Impact Employee Cynicism
13
employees may develop a negative behavior; if not addressed, that negative behavior can create a hostile environment.
The psychological contract is a set of expectations or promises between parties in an employment relationship. Psychological c
Work engagement outcomes in higher education: A systematic review of management's role in supporting job and career development
No full textEffective human resource practices are a means for organizations to attain a competitive edge. Organizations can achieve an advantage when employees are engaged in their work. Engaged employees are more productive, creative, and innovative, impacting retention, customer service, and an organization’s bottom line. Work engagement is defined as employees being fully connected to their work through mental, emotional, and physical attributes, resulting in increased levels of discretionary effort. Although evidence indicates work engagement is positively associated with realizing individual and organizational goals, 17.5% of employees describe themselves as being disengaged, costing businesses approximately $300 billion annually. Higher education institutions (HEIs) face unique work engagement challenges as manager/employee dyads typically comprise academic managers and non-academic employees, leading to a disconnect in job and career support. Therefore, the question used to guide this research was: What career management practices or strategies can managers within higher education implement to improve work engagement? Leader-member exchange (LMX) and job crafting comprised the theoretic frameworks used to conduct this systematic review. The research shows that career management practices (mentoring, performance feedback, training
and development, and benefits and rewards) and strategies tailored to the individual employee, along with consistent communication and the availability of resources and support, lead to a high-quality dyadic relationship. When engaged in a reciprocal relationship based on mutual trust and respect, an employee is empowered and is more willing to expand beyond in-role tasks and behaviors. Empowered employees are more likely to job craft, resulting in positive work engagement outcomes. HEI managers are provided with actionable job and career management survey tools that promote work engagement.REVIEW OF MANAGEMENT’S ROLE IN
and an organization’s bottom line. Work eREVIEW OF MANAGEMENT’S ROLE IN SUPPORTING –oror Johnson’s daily affirmations, uplifting memes, and scholarly ‘mothering’ and practical support. A big thank you to Dr. Wanda Wagner (one half of Wharff’s … – Erin’s “Are you dissertating!?” whenever I was hard. I believe your exact words were, “Suck it up here’s no – if it was easy, everyone would be a doctor!” Thank you for loving me through the Manager’s role in job a –
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– In today’s global environment, organizations face tremendous pressure to atta impact retention, customer service, and an organization’s bottom line (Society for Human
n’s mission (Society for Human Resource , it is the direct manager who typically assesses the employee’s performance and can ployee relationship contributes to the employee’s perception of having flexibility Stakeholders measure the university’s success by its ability to achieve goals focused on the achievement of the HEI’s goals is dependent upon the HEI’s administrative staff being fully
y’s The academic manager’s activities involved in the employee’s work “the physical or cognitive changes individuals make in the task or relational boundaries of their work” ent, for the purpose of this research, is defined as “a elated state of mind characterized by vigor, dedication, and absorption” – with managing the operational processes that directly impact the HEI’s mission and higher education’s –the department’ academic manager’s time, att
As a result of the academic manager’s focus on of their department’s Fostering career management practices adds to an organization’s ’s addition to the employee’s employee’s manager’s ganization’s abi’s mployee’s is directly linked to an employee’s perception of j employee’s ’s — — stakeholders’HEI’s primary mission pervasive ‘us against them’ attitude (Dobson, 2000, p. 203). ’s
’ access to resources and–
well as the employees’ perception of their work as it work environment. Management’
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Employee’s perception of job fit and increased positive“Evidence Time?,”
• organizations to create a partnership that enhances employees’ knowledge, skills,
• organization’s employees ( –
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•the employee’s overall contribution to the employee’s ability t job’s role. The employee’s view of works to increase the employee’s
the dissertation’s research toof the dissertation’s data set. the employee’s eges and universities as economic drivers may result in a nation’s loss of competit
—•
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•employees who were engaged in their work were, “ ‘ ’ ”
’s“experience positive emotions, including happiness, joy, and enthusiasm; rs” (Bakker & Demerouti, 2008, p. 215) Akbaş, Durak, Çetin, & Karkin, 2018
’sfrom the academic manager’s elevation to a managerial position
mic manager’s effectiveness
’’yee’s employee’s lifetime employability rather than simply employee’s position profile,
’ ) Graen’s and Uhl Bien’s ) Wrzesniewski’s and Dutton’sLMX’s original premise of in theory’s study’s research premise the individual’s expectations of the exchange the imbalance between the leader’s an follower’s perception of the level of trus on the follower’s attitudes and behaviors (Breevaart, Ba follower’s –yee’s active role in shaping their job’s components ( perspective to include the employee’s use of the daily comand the theory’s yee’s skills and provide the appropriate level of career and performance management. This chapter provided background information on the existing research literature’s s
EmployeeCareer ManagementPractices/StrategiesPlanningDevelopmentPathingGoal SettingIndifferenceHigh DemandsCynicismEmployee’sPerception of Job FitManagerReciprocityTrust / Respect(+)(-) LEADER-MEMBER EXCHANGE THEORYFocus on Manager/Employee RelationshipConsistent Exchange and Common GoalsJOB CRAFTING THEORYNumber, Type or Nature of TasksInteractions with OthersEngagement •••••••••• WORK ENGAGEMENTOUTCOMESResourcesEmpowermentFeedbackINCONSISTENTEXCHANGECONSISTENTEXCHANGEthe employee’s direct manager ent practices on the employee’s — —• –
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manager’s judgment. From “Evidence Principles” by
The systematic review process is a scientific approach that supports this dissertation’s review is defined as, “a review of existing res methods” (Gough, Oliver, & Thomas, 2017, p. 2). From “Research Design and Evidence” by C. mbiguous as they relate to research synthesis. However, the term ‘thematic is’ tative synthesis’ purpose is to achieve a greater understanding of conceptual or thown (p. 672). Analysis and synthesis of the thematic patterns found in this dissertation’s dataset
researchers’
’s research process–
“Systematic Reviews in the Social Sciences: A Practical Guide” by M. Petticrew & –cus of this dissertation’s methodology and is discussed in string used for this dissertation’s researc results, the “full text only” filter –candidate in UMGC’s Doctor of Business Administration Program, there were – based on this study’s research questio
tor within The Johns Hopkins University’s online library system Gough’s Weight In the application of Gough’s WoE to the general and review •
tudy’s focus and
•
•al data set. Adapted from “Weight of Evidence: A Framework for the Appraisal of the Quality and Relevance of Evidence” by D. Gough, 2007,
articles reviewed with Gough’s WoE parameters, seven ssertation’s final dataset included 34 quan–iagram displaying the flow of search results from this dissertation’s systematic review. Adapted from “The Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic R Statement” by D. Moher, A. Liberati, J. Tetzla17, p. 182). “Synthesis requires a ‘connected whole’” (p. 182). The process of translating the results of the individual studies into ’s research data (ATLAS.tthe software’s text searchfective use of the best available evidence. “The ultimate support for EBM is From “Bridging the Relevance Gap: Aligning St the Future of Management Research” by K. Starkey
d as, “individuals, organizations or communities that have a dire interest in the process and outcomes of a project, research or policy endeavor” (Deverka et al., and stakeholder engagement as, “an iterative process of actively soliciting the direct interests in a particular issue” (p. 5). Through stakeholder collab–
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Once the SMEs had an opportunity to review this study’s executive summary, feedback tudy’s initial conceptual modpractices in the higher education work environment. The study’s ability to provide practical, Gough’s WoE –’s findings.
loyees with individualized career guidance supported the employees’ efforts in
ch employee’s perceptiloyee’s willingness to – nn‐Willenbrock, Boer, Born, & Voelpel, 2017, – also serve to close the gap between actual application and the employee’s perception of the employees’ sense of empowerment, work motivation, and intention.
creased the employee’s –the employee’s
’s – organization’s reward system the organization’s external reward system for the employee’s well employee’s awa –rganization’s operatio
organization’s strategies and goals ivities align with the organization’s strategic priorities. influence the employee’s perception of the work environment.
the employee’s role and the organization’s–
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the employee’s employee’s w’s
Consistent manager/employee interactions also increase the employee’s willingness to loyee’s perceptionemployee’s percept al., 2014, p. 7) and the employee’s belief ’s the employee’s– The positive connection between the employee’s employee’s adjustment to the wo the employee’s perspective of the level of able to contribute to the employee’s employee’s sense of well
employee’s employee’s
employee’s ability and willingness to manage their job and sense of alignment with the organization’s strategy (Albrecht et al., 2018, p. 78), and serve manager’s engagement facilitates the employee’s willingness to putmoderate an employee’s willingness to be actively involved in career
structure and support for the dissertation’s rationale, problem statement, purpose, significance, receptive to the manager’s feedback and by asking for the resources and support needed to perform their jobs. The employee’s willingness to communicate with the manto the individual’sbased research’s Gough’s (2007) research that uses “explicit, accountable, and rigorous research methods” (Goughthe campus in fulfillment of the HEI’s obligations to the student expebased on the employee’s response to the interactions. Those employee
•
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•, are key to accomplishing goals at all levels of the triad. Management’s active
relationship is critical to the employee’s job and career —−
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− expectation for the employee’s involvement in the development process. manager’s conversation ’sss the employee’s readiness for potential Akbaş, T. T., Durak, İ., Çetin, A., & Karkin, N. (2018). Cynicis –
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– *Boon, C., & Kalshoven, K. (2014). How high‐commitment HRM relates to engagemen –
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Britannica’s online –
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–– t for your “house ”
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– *Gutermann, D., Lehmann‐Willenbrock, N., Boer, D., Born, M., & Voelpel, S. C. (2017). How leaders affect followers’ work engagement and performance: Integrating leader−member – –– – –
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––– ework in dissertation research: Creating the blueprint for your “house ” – – –– – – –
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•individual’s iden
One’s attitude toward one’s vocatio
that enhances employees’ knowledge, skills, competencies, and attitudes
ent of one’s own career by gathering information and plans
organization’s employees.
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An individual employee’s cognitive, emotional, and behavioral statployees’ satisfaction can be defined as a set of cognitive and affective ions that ‘results from the perception that one’s job fulfills or allows the fulfillment of one’s important job values, providing that and to the congruent with one’s needs’.An employee’s perception of how well their work environment and/or job
A feeling that one is receiving a return on investment of one’s self
his or her role as an individual”.–
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Marlene Walk, PhD, Assistant Professor, Paul H. O’Neill School of Public and
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–
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☐Professor Berg – thank you so much for your response! I can certainly appreciate the demands on your time. However, if you have even a millisecond, I would greatly appreciate you taking a peek at my conceptual model below and letting me know your initial/immediate thoughts on it. I think job crafting is a critical piece of my research and would value any feedback/advice you could spare. Thank you and all the best to you and your family – children bring such joy and a whole new perspective on life and what’s truly important and to be valued. ;p
Regards,
/iam
Ilene A. McCoy, MBA
Director & Special Assistant to Dr. Beverly Wendland, James B. Knapp Dean
Office of the Dean | 3400 N. Charles Street, N600 Wyman Park Bldg. | Baltimore, MD 21218
Phone: 410-516-4065 | Mobile: 443-540-7352 | E-mail:
From: Justin Berg [ ] Sent: Tuesday, June 25, 2019 11:34 AM To: Ilene McCoy Subject: Re: Request for Feedback on Dissertation Research re: Work Engagement Importance: High
Dear Ilene,
Your dissertation sounds very interesting. Unfortunately, I’m coming back from parental leave and have some catching up to do, so I don’t have capacity for this. I wish you the best of luck with the project.
Sincerely,
Justin
On Jun 24, 2019, at 3:09 PM, Ilene McCoy wrote:
Dear Doctor Berg,
I am Ilene A. McCoy, a student in the Doctor of Business Administration (DBA) program at the University of Maryland University College (UMUC). I am in the final stages of the dissertation process and expect to have it completed within the year. I am writing to inquire as to whether you would be willing to serve as a subject matter expert (SME) for my dissertation. The current title of my dissertation is “Work Engagement Outcomes in Higher Education: A Systematic Review of Management’s Role in Supporting Job and Career Development.”
My university requires that we apply an evidence-based management systematic review process as the methodology. I am in the stage of completing my concept paper, which includes Chapters 1 through 3: the introduction, scoping literature review, and methodology.
As a SME, the expectation would be to review and critique an executive summary of my dissertation Chapters 1 through 3. The role of the SME is to provide feedback by completing a short questionnaire relating to this executive summary. The SME role does not require you to serve as a reader of the final dissertation, rather only to review the executive summary. While you will not be asked to further participate as a dissertation advisor or provide additional consultation/support beyond this request, you may receive a copy of the completed dissertation upon request.
Your comments will be incorporated into the Methodology chapter (Chapter 3), within the section “Subject Matter Experts/Panel Members Review,” and appropriate changes will be incorporated into the dissertation, as agreed upon with my primary advisor. I believe your service as a SME for my dissertation will enhance the direction and content of this effort. As a matter of introduction, I have attached a brief biographical sketch of my professional and academic experience, along with the
objectives of the DBA program as background information and an overview of the SME’s role.
In closing, along with my brief biographical sketch and other background information, I have attached the executive summary of my work-in-progress dissertation and a questionnaire that guides your review. I thank you for your consideration in assisting in this capacity. If you’d prefer to provide your feedback verbally, please let me know your availability for scheduling a phone call – I can be reached via e-mail or phone as noted below. Your response to this request before Monday – July 8th would be greatly appreciated.
Respectfully,
/iam
Ilene A. McCoy, MBA
Director & Special Assistant to Dr. Beverly Wendland, James B. Knapp Dean
Office of the Dean | 3400 N. Charles Street, N600 Wyman Park Bldg. | Baltimore, MD 21218
Phone: 410-516-4065 | Mobile: 443-540-7352 | E-mail:
Wrzesniewski, Amy
Tue 7/16/2019 2:53 PM
You may list that, but not that I served as SME (as that is a specific designation that requires far more work than a quick look at the model!).
Thanks,
Amy
From: Ilene McCoy Sent: Tuesday, July 16, 2019 2:18 PM To: Wrzesniewski, Amy Subject: RE: Request for Feedback on Dissertation Research re: Work Engagement
Thank you!! May I please list you in my dissertation as someone who has provided brief feedback on my conceptual model?
Regards,
/iam
Ilene A. McCoy, MBA
Director & Special Assistant to Dr. Beverly Wendland, James B. Knapp Dean
Office of the Dean | 3400 N. Charles Street, N600 Wyman Park Bldg. | Baltimore, MD 21218
Phone: 410-516-4065 | Mobile: 443-540-7352 | E-mail: [email protected]
From: Wrzesniewski, Amy [mailto:[email protected]] Sent: Tuesday, July 16, 2019 1:43 PM To: Ilene McCoy Subject: RE: Request for Feedback on Dissertation Research re: Work Engagement
Thanks, Ilene!
This all looks interesting to me. I’d look also for direct effects from your IVs to your DVs, of course, without the mediating steps, just to be sure.
Best,
Amy
From: Ilene McCoy Sent: Tuesday, July 16, 2019 7:54 AM To: Wrzesniewski, Amy Subject: Re: Request for Feedback on Dissertation Research re: Work Engagement
Professor Wrzesniewski - thank you so much for your response. I can certainly appreciate the demands on your time, even given the opportune surroundings (writing by the sea sounds AWESOME!).
May I please ask that you take a few minutes to at least review my conceptual model below and share your
Age, employee reaction, and corporate social responsivity
No full textThis presentation explores how age affects employee reaction to corporate social responsibility.Age, Employee Reaction, and Corporate Social Responsivity
John Norfolk, Doctor of Business Administration Candidate
• Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) is
practiced by many organizations
• Limited research on employees and CSR
• Today’s workforce is diverse regarding age
• Employees have expectations regarding CSR
• Expectations may be impacted by age
⎯ Generational Cohort: Time period effects
⎯ Age Stage: Chronological age effects
• Meeting employee CSR expectations may
increase satisfaction, performance, and retention
Problem Statement
Question
How Does Age Affect Employee Reaction to
Corporate Social Responsibility
Research Question
• Many traditional workplace practices are considered
CSR in the modern work environment
• Older employees expect intrinsic returns, but also
value extrinsic returns
• Younger employees expect extrinsic returns, but don’t
value the intrinsic returns
• CSR can satisfy employees across the age spectrum
⎯ Include a mix of internally (extrinsic) and externally
(social) focused activities
⎯ Implement activities that accomplish both
simultaneously, such as mentoring
• Increase awareness and perception of CSR
⎯ Make expectations for involvement known
⎯ Recognize CSR participation
• Effectively communicate CSR activities
⎯ Ensure it reaches all organizational levels
⎯ Use methods embraced by employees across the
age spectrum
⎯ Use active communication
Discussion
Evidence Based Systematic Review
• Sources: ABI-Inform, Emerald Insight, JSTOR,
Snowball
• Search terms: CSR, Employee Satisfaction,
Expectations, and Age Effects (Generation/Age
Stage)
• Limited to Academic Journals in English
• PRISMA: 927 articles found, 219 full text review
• Quality Appraisal: Modified Weight of Evidence for
Rigor and Relevance
• 43 Articles selected
⎯ 40 Conducted Primary Research
⎯ 39 Qualitative, 1 Mixed Methods
⎯ 3 Conducted Secondary Research
• Tools: MS Excel, Atlas.ti, Mendeley
Methodology
• Generational effects are not as great as perceived
• Age Stage has greater effect than generation
• Age Stage effects are predictable
⎯ Younger employees seek extrinsic (tangible) returns.
⎯ Older employees seek intrinsic (social) returns
• All employees expect CSR
⎯ Age does impact employee reaction to CSR
⎯ Millennials have higher expectations
• Psychological Contract
⎯ Breach occurs, more frequently for younger
employees due to unrealistic expectations
⎯ Older employees have more realistic expectations
and exhibit more controlled reactions to breach
• CSR can establish shared values
⎯ Shared values increase employee fit
Findings
Conceptual Model
Th
• Range of Affect Theory (Locke, 1968)
• Hygiene (needs) and motivational (wants) factors
can provide satisfaction and dissatisfaction
• Expectations represent belief that needs and
wants will be fulfilled
• Values determine the importance of expectations
• Fulfillment of high value expectations achieves
satisfaction
Theoretical Framewor
Adopting analytics: A framework for nonprofit organizations
No full textThis presentation explores how nonprofit
organizations can adopt and implement analytics
to improve performance.Adopting Analytics:
A Framework for Nonprofit Organizations
Research question: How can nonprofit
organizations adopt and implement analytics
to improve performance?
Access to data and information
Kate Goldberg, D.B.A. Candidate
Dr. Raymond Marbury, Advisor
University of Maryland Global Campus
The problem: Nonprofit organizations need to
improve performance. Private industry has
embraced analytics to increase profit and
productivity.
Theory: Everett Rogers (1983) Diffusion of
Innovations and Decision Innovation Process
Method: Evidence based management using
systematic review and thematic synthesis
Dependent on Human Capital
Create an organizational structure supportive of analytics
Increase funding for training of managers and employees
Create communication tools for stakeholder feedback
Create protocols for data collection
Use analytical methods appropriate to the goal/mission
Match analytics to the training and data available
Recommendations:
Findings
Multiple analytical methods are used
Information systems
Social media
Non-regression formulas
Key performance indicators
Regressions
Performance management
systems
Dashboards
Mapping and GIS
Classification
Context analysis
Business analytics
Crowdfunding software analytics
Spreadsheets
Artificial
intelligence &
machine learning
Segmentatio
Exploring the impact of employee empowerment on the intrinsic motivation of employees in collaborative environments
No full textThis dissertation was conducted with a broad objective of exploring the effects of employee empowerment on intrinsic motivation, with a particular focus on collaborative environments.
A 26-article systematic review was performed to map the field and methodically identify the main themes of those studies to answer the following research question: How does employee empowerment affect the intrinsic motivation of employees in collaborative environments? Six main themes emerged through the qualitative coding of the articles, resulting in the identification of how employee empowerment effects HRM practices, job complexity and clarity, communication and feedback, cultural alignment, leadership styles and attributes, and
ii
perceptions. Findings, recommendations, and limitations are detailed in the text, along with the precise methodological approach.i
Title of Dissertation:
EXPLORING THE IMPACT OF EMPLOYEE EMPOWERMENT ON THE INTRINSIC MOTIVATION OF EMPLOYEES IN COLLABORATIVE ENVIRONMENTS
Emil Moumani, Doctor of Business Administration, 2020
Dissertation directed by:
Professor W. Christopher Cason, D.M.
Abstract
This dissertation was conducted with a broad objective of exploring the effects of employee empowerment on intrinsic motivation, with a particular focus on collaborative environments.
A 26 article systematic review was performed to map the field and methodically identify the main themes of those studies to answer the following research question: How does employee empowerment affect the intrinsic motivation of employees in collaborative environments? Six main themes emerged through the qualitative coding of the articles, resulting in the identification of how employee empowerment effects HRM practices, job complexity and clarity, communication and feedback, cultural alignment, leadership styles and attributes, and ii
perceptions. Findings, recommendations, and limitations are detailed in the text, along with the precise methodological approach.
KEYWORDS: employee empowerment, autonomy, intrinsic motivation, rewards, literature review, systematic, collaborative, teams, context, perception, leadership stylesiii
iv
EXPLORING THE IMPACT OF EMPLOYEE EMPOWERMENT ON THE INTRINSIC MOTIVATION OF EMPLOYEES IN COLLABORATIVE ENVIRONMENTS
By
Emil Moumani
Dissertation submitted to the Faculty of the Graduate School of the
University of Maryland Global Campus, in partial fulfillment
of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Business Administration
2020v
© Copyright by
Emil Moumani
2020vi
Dedication
I dedicate this work to my parents, Katica Skrivan Moumani and Dr. Akram Moumani, my father and mother in law, Julijana and Tibor Kasper, my brother, Nidal, my wife, Andrea, and our two beautiful children, Laith and Lana. Without you, I wouldn’t have the wings to fly, the legs to walk, and a voice to speak. Without you, I wouldn’t understand the good in the world, the collective approach to family, and selflessness. Without you, I wouldn’t know love, passion, forgiveness, and humility. Without you, I wouldn’t understand the true meaning of life and simple happiness. Without you, I couldn’t imagine living, learning, and loving. Thank you for providing me with the strength, wisdom, and courage to pursue my dreams.vii
Acknowledgments
I would first like to acknowledge the staff that got me to this point. Dr. Jarrow, Dr. Bouchard, Dr. Anderson, Dr. Kri Watson (RIP), Dr. Witz, and Dr. McCollum. A special thanks to Dr. Dinauer and Marina Caminis for providing administrative support to all of us. Dr. W. Christopher Cason and Dr. Richard Milter, thank you for walking me through the dissertation. Without you, this would be a more difficult journey. Your calmness, respect, insight, and advice helped keep me focused, motivated, and excited about the process. Also, I would like to thank future Dr. Patty LePage for the final review and edit. I want to acknowledge Jacqueline Brunson and Glenn Brown for taking a chance on me, and the University of Maryland Global Campus for creating a fantastic work environment and benefits, which made it possible for me to pursue a terminal degree. My wonderful cohort members who made the journey to Maryland an enjoyable one every time. Finally, my brother and parents for providing financial support for everything above and beyond the tuition. All of you, collectively, have made it possible to reach the final stages of this program. Thank you from the bottom of my heart!viii
Table of Contents
Dedication vi
Acknowledgments vii
Chapter 1: Introduction and Overview of the Management Problem 13
Background and Overview of Empowerment 13
The beginning. 13
The cultural roots of empowerment. 14
TQM and empowerment. 15
Psychological empowerment. 16
Relational empowerment. 17
Background and Overview of Intrinsic Motivation 17
Early times. 18
The re birth. 19
Problem Statement and Significance of the Problem 20
The Research Question 22
Research question relevance. 22
Formulation method. 22
Importance to Management 23
Across the globe. 23
Impacting collaboration. 23
Organization of the Dissertation 23
Chapter 2: Scoping Literature Review 25
Introduction 25 ix
Empowerment and Performance 25
Empowerment and Organizational Change 26
Empowerment and Commitment 27
Empowerment and Teamwork 28
Empowerment and Organizational Learning 29
Empowerment and Organizational Culture 30
Empowerment and Innovation 32
Empowerment and Creativity 33
Empowerment and Job Satisfaction 34
Intrinsic Motivation and Rewards 35
Intrinsic Motivation and Competition 36
Intrinsic Motivation and Goal Setting 38
Intrinsic Motivation and Creativity 39
Intrinsic Motivation and Job Satisfaction 40
Theoretical Framework 41
Importance of Theory 41
The Foundation 42
Five stages of empowerment. 42
Cognitive elements of empowerment. 42
Spreitzer’s empowerment theory. 43
Theoretical Lens 44
Chapter 3: Method 46
The Evidence Based Research Framework 46 x
Evidence based management. 46
The other side of evidence based management. 46
Moving forward. 47
Systematic Review 48
Review Biases 48
Dissertation Approach 49
Synthesis Methods 50
Meta ethnography 51
Meta analysis. 51
Mixed methods synthesis. 52
Realist synthesis. 52
Thematic synthesis. 53
Moving Forward 54
Search Strategy 55
Keywords and Search Phrase 55
Quality Appraisal 58
Method of quality appraisal of the included studies. 58
Coding of evidence. 59
Chapter Summary 60
Chapter 4: Analysis and Findings 62
Review of the Research Question 62
Description of the Data Set 62
Quality assessment process. 64 xi
Addressing the criteria. 64
Results of the Synthesis of the Articles in the Data Set 67
HRM practices. 67
Job complexity and clarity. 68
Communication and feedback. 69
Leadership styles and attributes. 70
Perceptions. 71
Cultural alignment. 72
Contextual Importance 73
Chapter Summary 74
Next chapter. 75
Chapter 5: Conclusions and Implications 76
Review of the Research 76
Background. 76
The research process. 76
Answer to the Research Question 78
Finding 1 from Chapter 4: Management Implications 79
The HRM role 79
Finding 2 from Chapter 4: Management Implications 80
The employee role and empowerment. 80
Finding 3 from Chapter 4: Management Implications 81
Communication and feedback. 81
Finding 4 from Chapter 4: Management Implications 81 xii
The importance of leadership style. 81
Finding 5 from Chapter 4: Management Implications 82
Accounting for perceptions. 82
Finding 6 from Chapter 4: Management Implications 83
Cultural alignment. 83
Limitations of the Study and Areas for Future Research 84
Limitations of the study. 84
Areas for future research. 85
References 86
Appendix A 113
Appendix B 114
Appendix C 118
Appendix D 120
Appendix E 148
Appendix F 164 13
Chapter 1: Introduction and Overview of the Management Problem
Employee empowerment has been a popular research topic and a valuable notion in the development of more democratic organizations. Despite its popularity and influence, it has remained an enigmatic concept, growing in complexity and obscurity. The theoretical interpretations are abundant, and their development can be dated back to the stable economic years of mass production and consumption — the years where organizations were running in a command and control manner, limiting the decision making authority to the top echelon. Reviewing both the historical development and modern day applications of this important concept will ascertain the direction of this investigation.
Background and Overview of Empowerment
The beginning.
Post World War II, United States economic power was at its summit (Reich, 1991, p. 304), and American managerial practices were held in the highest esteem (Potterfield, 1999, p. 30). This status helped in the neglect of some of the early proponents of participatory management, like Argyris (1957), Likert (1961), and McGregor (1960). Lawler (1986) argues that the changes advocated by Argyris, Likert, and McGregor lacked economic reasoning and were perceived by some as anti capitalist (p. 9). Corporate objectives, at the time, did not call for changes in structure and managerial practices since the economic output was so high. Advocating the need for corporate leaders to share the power was more in line with the socialist point of view than that of the leading capitalist power in the world. However, economic dominance began to weaken during the 1970s, expanding the previously narrow perceptions of the authoritarian hierarchies.14
The 1970s saw an increase in global competition and undermining of the U.S. economic dominance, creating a changing and turbulent business environment (Lawler, 1986). According to Reich (1983), as of 1970, only nine percent of U.S. produced goods were exported, and only nine percent of purchased goods were imported. By 1980, those figures rose to 19 and 22 percent, respectively (Reich, 1983, p. 121). Furthermore, Thurow (1992) notes that by 1987, U.S. imports exceeded its exports by over 162 billion dollars (p. 58). Potterfield (1999) argues that this economic shift changed organizational attitudes from complacent to inquisitive, specifically challenging traditional management approaches (p. 30). The increase in global competition exposed vulnerabilities of the corporate giants of pre 1970s, disputing the applicability and effectiveness of highly prescribed and heavily supervised roles they relied on in the past. Coincidently, another movement, social in nature, was taking place and helped in the cultivation of the participatory management ideology.
The cultural roots of empowerment.
Before becoming a well known management concept, empowerment was deliberated and applied in the fields of social activism and social reform. Simon (1994) credits Barbara Solomon with the formal introduction of the term “empowerment” in her 1976 book Black Empowerment. The social reforms of the1960s and 1970s incorporated various empowerment related ideas, which can be traced to movements and ideologies presented over the past few centuries (Potterfield, 1999, p. 38). Some of the greatest influences are Freudianism, Jeffersonian democracy, populism, transcendentalism, social gospel movement, the labor movement, Marxism and socialism, feminism, American civil rights movements, and Gandhi’s Indian liberation movement (Simon, 1994). Therefore, the underlying ideas of empowerment have been around for many years before the term appeared in writing. Oddly, empowerment literature, in 15
the business context, does not acknowledge the influence of social activists and reformers of the 1960s and 1970s, albeit Total Quality Movement (TQM) acceleration can be traced back to the mid 1970s when the term “empowerment” was commonly used in the social change circles (Potterfield, 1999).
Capitalism was another significant historical influence on empowerment (Simon, 1994). Simon (1994) argues that the core values of capitalism (e.g., risk taking, planning of one’s future, proactivity, and cooperating with others who share the same economic and social interests) are ingrained within the empowerment tradition in social reform (p. 36) Two points must be taken into account. First, empowerment is an idea that people can act in concert to make meaningful changes in the conditions that affect their lives, which naturally aligns with the objectives of business leaders. Second, the term has a different meaning depending on its context (i.e., whether it is used by a business leader or a social activist). In a social action domain, it is a recognition by an oppressed group that collectively, they can impact their situation and improve their conditions. In the scope of business management, empowerment refers to the delegation of decision making power to lower level employees (Potterfield, 1999, p. 45). Before discussing the major theories and theorists, a review of another popular approach to business management, TQM, which helped lay the foundation for the practices and theories of employee empowerment, is warranted.
TQM and empowerment.
TQM is a management approach that concentrates on lowering cost and increasing efficiency by placing the responsibility on front line employees to produce a product that meets a prescribed quality (Dubey & Gunasekaran, 2015, p. 371). Marchese (1991) identified twelve principles of TQM: 1) a focus on quality, 2) customer driven, 3) continuous improvement, 4) 16
making processes work better, 5) extending the mindset, 6) the discipline of information, 7) elimination of rework, 8) teamwork, 9) empowerment of people, 10) training and recognition, 11) vision and 12) leadership (p. 3). To build a better quality product, companies should decentralize decision making power and shift it to lower level employees who can stop production and make the necessary adjustments when needed (Potterfield, 1999, p. 46). Essentially, TQM encourages a more participatory approach, which helped some U.S. organizations overcome the turbulent business conditions of the 1970s. It cultivates empowerment related ideas, which helped prepare the business landscape for empowerment theories and practices within the organizational and corporate settings.
Psychological empowerment.
Psychological empowerment focuses on individual employee’s view of being empowered. Here, Spreitzer (1992) argues that the central process is to define the self perceptions of the employee who believes that he/she is empowered (p. 6). Spreitzer (1992) builds on the theoretical approaches of Conger and Kanungo (1988) and Thomas and Velthouse (1990) and claims that an employee is psychologically empowered when he or she: a) find meaning in his or her role involvement, b) feels efficacious with respect to his or her ability and capacity to perform, c) has a sense of determination with regards to specific means to achieve a desired outcome within his or her role, and d) believes that the individual has control over desired results, that he or she can have an impact on the broader environment (p. 26). Therefore, an employees’ sense of psychological empowerment can be enhanced or deteriorated in both the external work environment and internal mental cognitions. To gauge empowerment in the organizational context, one would have to look at the relational perspective of empowerment.17
Relational empowerment.
Relational empowerment refers to the organization as the subject. It is concerned with how the organizational culture should be designed to enable the empowerment of its members (Potterfield, 1999, p. 52). The central theme of the relational empowerment is the relocation of power from the organizational leaders to the lower level employees (Conger & Kanungo, 1988; Spreitzer, 1992) while ensuring that the organization is set up to support the shift (Bowen & Lawler, 1992; Jaffe & Scott, 1991). Bowen and Lawler (1992) posit that an empowered employee is confident that they have the necessary resources at their disposal to provide the customer with what they need (p. 35). While, Jaffe, Scott, and Tobe (1994) suggest that an organization with a pyramid structure does not believe that their employee wish to work, therefore, should be closely monitored. To that end, creating a flatter organization with decentralized decision making authority, and the agility to react is the foundation of the relational approach. Given that both the relational and psychological empowerment ignite internal drivers, it would be logical to assume that employee empowerment affects employees’ intrinsic motivation and experience at work. It is this assumption that incites the research moving forward and is the underlying theme of this dissertation.
Background and Overview of Intrinsic Motivation
To align the timeline with employee empowerment, this investigation will begin around the early 1970s. Although, it is worth noting that earlier researchers and theorists of intrinsic motivation (e.g., Daniel Berlyne; Joseph McVicker Hunt, Robert White, and Robert Woodworth) laid the foundation of what we understand it to be today.
Understanding why we do the things we do has long been a goal of psychologists. From early on, the field focused on two primary types of explanations for behavior: basic 18
biological needs or drives connected to survival and procreation (e.g., hunger, thirst, sex) and extrinsic rewards or punishments. Both types of explanations suggest that behavior is motivated by the need or desire to achieve particular outcomes (e.g., restoring a tissue deficit to equilibrium, acquiring a reward, or avoiding punishment). Motivation thus energizes and guides behavior toward reaching a particular goal (Sansone & Harackiewicz, 2000, p. 1).
Early times.
The early 1970s signified a period of exploration, and several researchers began looking deeper into the additive nature of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. Deci (1972) suggested that college students were less interested in completing a SOMA Cube puzzle on their own during a free choice period when they got paid to do it (p. 220). Lepper, Greene, and Nisbett (1973) demonstrated an "overjustification effect," suggesting that when individuals have sufficient extrinsic and intrinsic reasons to perform a particular behavior, they will ascribe their reaction to the external reward while discounting the internal reason (p. 135). These seminal studies generated excitement in the field. They inspired many research studies, suggesting that providing external rewards for tasks that were going to be done anyways have detrimental effects on intrinsic motivation (see Deci, Koestner, & Ryan, 1999, for details of the meta analysis). Just like with any research, the story expands as different perceptions are accounted for.
When researchers began exploring how a reward for achieving a certain level of skill at a particular activity interacts, they opened the door to both the controlling aspect of the reward, as well as to the positive competence feedback (Sansone & Harackiewicz, 2000, p. 3). In some cases, the reward for achieving a competence enhanced subsequent motivation (Karniol & Ross, 1977, p. 485), sometimes it decreased it (Harackiewicz, 1979, p. 1361), and sometimes it had no 19
effect (Boggiano & Ruble, 1979, p. 1466). This negative perception of extrinsic rewards on intrinsic motivation sparked a lively debate from behaviorist researchers (Arnold, 1976; Feingold & Mahoney, 1975; Reiss & Sushinsky, 1975; Vasta and Stirpe, 1979), who argued that the studies ignored the vast amount of research showing that reinforcement affirms rather than deters the behavior.
During the next 20 years, the conflicting conclusions of these divergent literatures continue to coexist in persistent tension. While in the business setting, compensation packages continue to be utilized as motivational tools, and gold stars and stickers continue to reward children for good work; management consultants are advising against extrinsic motivators and education consultants counsel against procedures interfering with intrinsic motivation (Sansone & Harackiewicz, 2000, p. 4).
The re birth.
The debate re emerged when Eisenberger and Cameron (1996) challenged the connection between extrinsic rewards, intrinsic motivation, and creativity. Their meta analysis concluded that a) detrimental effects of reward occur under highly restricted, easily avoidable conditions; b) mechanisms of instrumental and classical conditioning are basic for understanding incremental and decremental effects of reward on task motivation; and c) positive effects of reward on generalized creativity are easily attainable using procedures derived from behavior theory (p. 1153). This flagship publication insinuated that the questions raised in the 1970s were still relevant, and of great interest (Sansonce & Harackiewicz, 2000, p. 5). Eisenberger and Cameron (1996) advanced the discussion beyond the effects of extrinsic rewards, to include newer approaches, applications, and models (emerging since the early 1970s), which will be extensively examined during the course of this research.20
Problem Statement and Significance of the Problem
Employee empowerment has been studied and explored by numerous management practitioners and theorists, linking it to several competitive advantages (Baird & Wang, 2010; Choong, Wong, and Lau, 2011; Conger & Kanungo, 1998; Hirzel, Leyer, & Moormann, 2017; Menon, 2001; Spreitzer, 1995; Thomas & Velthouse, 1990; Wall, Wood, & Leach, 2004). Baird, Su, and Munir (2018) recorded a positive interaction between employee empowerment and organizational performance, while Hirzel et al. (2017) identified employee empowerment as a significant contributor to the success of continuous improvement initiatives (p. 1573). To that end, providing employees with the autonomy to make decisions can increase the sense of ownership, and improve organizational performance through continual imp
The culture of supporting and retaining transitioning military veterans: A systematic review
No full textThe purpose of this dissertation is to explore how a socially supportive organizational culture impacts the retention of transitioning United States (U.S.) military veterans in the civilian workforce. The results provided evidence-based management recommendations focused on improving retention rates of transitioning United States military veterans. The methodological approach employed in the systematic review was an evidence-based management solution, involving a comprehensive search for evidence in order to explore what is known and unknown about the research question (Briner, 2019). The interpretivist lens of realist synthesis was also employed. This naturalistic format addresses complex problems from a real-world perspective promoting an understanding of the problem through various stakeholder perspectives. (Crowe et
THE CULTURE OF SUPPORTING AND RETAINING TRANSITIONING MILITARY ii al., 2011). The findings suggest that organizations must be proactive in understanding the drivers and predictors of veteran retention. Organizational culture and support were identified in the review as drivers of retention. In addition to understanding what drives retention, it is important to understand the factors that predict retention. While employees leave their jobs for various reasons, the research indicated that the primary retention predictors are job satisfaction and commitment. Practical implications include insights into the reasons for the high rate of churn among transitioning veterans, providing practitioners with the key drivers and predictors of retention. This research provides organizations with actionable strategies and recommendations to reduce churn among transitioning veterans while increasing commitment and satisfaction.THE CULTURE OF SUPPORTING AND RETAINING TRANSITIONING MILITARY
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ABSTRACT
Title of Dissertation: THE CULTURE OF SUPPORTING AND RETAINING
TRANSITIONING MILITARY VETERANS: A
SYSTEMATIC REVIEW
Patty H. LePage,
Doctor of Business Administration, 2020
The purpose of this dissertation is to explore how a socially supportive organizational culture
impacts the retention of transitioning United States (U.S.) military veterans in the civilian
workforce. The results provided evidence-based management recommendations focused on
improving retention rates of transitioning United States military veterans. The methodological
approach employed in the systematic review was an evidence-based management solution,
involving a comprehensive search for evidence in order to explore what is known and unknown
about the research question (Briner, 2019). The interpretivist lens of realist synthesis was also
employed. This naturalistic format addresses complex problems from a real-world perspective
promoting an understanding of the problem through various stakeholder perspectives. (Crowe et
THE CULTURE OF SUPPORTING AND RETAINING TRANSITIONING MILITARY
ii
al., 2011). The findings suggest that organizations must be proactive in understanding the drivers
and predictors of veteran retention. Organizational culture and support were identified in the
review as drivers of retention. In addition to understanding what drives retention, it is important
to understand the factors that predict retention. While employees leave their jobs for various
reasons, the research indicated that the primary retention predictors are job satisfaction and
commitment. Practical implications include insights into the reasons for the high rate of churn
among transitioning veterans, providing practitioners with the key drivers and predictors of
retention. This research provides organizations with actionable strategies and recommendations
to reduce churn among transitioning veterans while increasing commitment and satisfaction.
Keywords: commitment, job satisfaction, military transition, military veteran retention,
organizational culture, social support
THE CULTURE OF SUPPORTING AND RETAINING TRANSITIONING MILITARY
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THE CULTURE OF SUPPORTING AND RETAINING TRANSITIONING MILITARY
VETERANS: A SYSTEMATIC REVIEW
By
Patricia H. LePage
Dissertation submitted to the School of Business,
University of Maryland Global Campus, in partial fulfillment
of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Business Administration
2020
THE CULTURE OF SUPPORTING AND RETAINING TRANSITIONING MILITARY
iv
© Copyright by
Patricia H. LePage
2020
THE CULTURE OF SUPPORTING AND RETAINING TRANSITIONING MILITARY
v
Dedication
I dedicate this work to my amazing husband, Rick LePage, my parents, Elsie and Gerry
Langdon, and my beautiful children, Kris, Madison, and Chase, who have all sacrificed along
with me on this journey. Without the enormous sacrifices that you have all made, I would not
have succeeded in this journey and accomplished this life-long goal. Your inspiration and
confidence in me have helped me to reach new heights and greater aspirations than I ever
thought possible. While this journey is ending, I look forward to sharing with each of you the
rewards of success. Thank you all for giving me the strength to finish this journey, despite the
roadblocks and challenges. You are all truly my inspiration.
THE CULTURE OF SUPPORTING AND RETAINING TRANSITIONING MILITARY
vi
Acknowledgments
I would like to acknowledge the following individuals who inspired me on my journey,
providing direction and support while I completed my dissertation journey. Thank you all for
your time and inspiration.
Dr. Bouchard, my dissertation advisor, for being my champion and always inspiring me to
push the limits and challenging me to do more than I believed I could
Dr. Sherlock, my second reader, for reminding me of the joy that is part of this difficult
journey
Dr. Witz, for taking the time out of her busy schedule to serve on my defense committee
Marina Caminis, our incredible Academic Program Coordinator, who made sure that all our
issues were resolved and for the joy she brought to each residency
To my cohort, who supported me through the good and the bad, ensuring that I always stayed
motivated and enjoyed the journey
To my subject matter experts, Liz Bloss Kwasnik and Nelson Santini, for dedicating their
time and expertise
Dr. Booth for creating an incredible atmosphere and hiring the best professors to ensure our
success in the program
Dr. Emil Moumani and the future Dr. Juan Cruz for taking the time to provide their valuable
feedback on my work
THE CULTURE OF SUPPORTING AND RETAINING TRANSITIONING MILITARY
vii
Table of Contents
Abstract i
Cover Page
Dedication v
Acknowledgments vi
Table of Contents vii
List of Tables x
List of Figures xi
Chapter 1: Introduction and Overview of the Management Problem 1
Background and Overview of Veteran Transition ...................................................................... 1
Problem Statement and Significance of the Problem .................................................................. 2
Purpose of the Study and The Research Question ...................................................................... 5
Significance of the Study ............................................................................................................ 6
Discussion of Key Concepts ....................................................................................................... 7
Definitions and Terminology ...................................................................................................... 8
Chapter Summary ........................................................................................................................ 8
Organization of the Dissertation ................................................................................................. 9
Chapter 2: Scoping Literature Review and Theoretical Frame 10
Theoretical Framework ............................................................................................................. 10
Importance of Theory ............................................................................................................ 10
The Foundation ...................................................................................................................... 11
Organizational Culture Theory .............................................................................................. 11
Social Network Theory .......................................................................................................... 14
Combined Theories................................................................................................................ 17
The Literature Landscape .......................................................................................................... 18
Veteran Transition ................................................................................................................. 18
Veteran Retention .................................................................................................................. 20
Organizational Culture .......................................................................................................... 22
Social Support........................................................................................................................ 24
Chapter Summary ...................................................................................................................... 27
Chapter 3: Method 28
Review Design and Methodology ............................................................................................. 28
The Evidence-Based Research Framework ........................................................................... 28
Systematic Review ................................................................................................................ 29
Realist Synthesis Methodology ............................................................................................. 29
Search Strategy ...................................................................................................................... 32
Quality Appraisal ................................................................................................................... 37
Method of Analysis ............................................................................................................... 39
Coding .................................................................................................................................. 39
Subject Matter Experts .............................................................................................................. 40
THE CULTURE OF SUPPORTING AND RETAINING TRANSITIONING MILITARY
viii
Subject Matter Expert 1 (SME 1) .......................................................................................... 41
Subject Matter Expert 2 (SME 2) .......................................................................................... 41
Chapter Summary ...................................................................................................................... 42
Chapter 4: Analysis and Findings 43
Review of the Research Question ............................................................................................. 43
Description of the Data Set ....................................................................................................... 43
Results of the Quality Appraisal of the Data Set ...................................................................... 46
Analysis of the Data Set ............................................................................................................ 46
Results of the Coding of the Data Set .................................................................................... 46
Findings and Discussion............................................................................................................ 49
Results of the Synthesis of the Articles in the Data Set ........................................................ 49
Culture .................................................................................................................................. 51
Support.................................................................................................................................. 55
Retention ............................................................................................................................... 60
Commitment .......................................................................................................................... 66
Employee Satisfaction ........................................................................................................... 71
Recruitment ........................................................................................................................... 74
Onboarding ............................................................................................................................ 76
Mentoring .............................................................................................................................. 77
Training ................................................................................................................................ 78
Leadership ............................................................................................................................. 82
Performance ........................................................................................................................... 83
Workplace Diversity & Inclusion .......................................................................................... 84
Chapter Summary ...................................................................................................................... 86
Chapter 5: Conclusions and Implications 87
The Research Process ................................................................................................................ 87
Answer to the Research Question ............................................................................................. 88
Considerations from Subject Matter Experts ............................................................................ 89
Management Implications ......................................................................................................... 90
Summary of Findings ............................................................................................................ 91
Drivers of Retention .............................................................................................................. 91
Predictors of Retention .......................................................................................................... 95
Design Propositions ................................................................................................................... 96
Strategies and Recommendations .............................................................................................. 98
Recruitment ........................................................................................................................... 99
Onboarding .......................................................................................................................... 100
Mentoring ............................................................................................................................ 101
Professional Development/Training .................................................................................... 102
Leadership ........................................................................................................................... 102
Performance ......................................................................................................................... 103
Workplace Diversity/Inclusion ............................................................................................ 104
Formulating a Plan............................................................................................................... 104
Limitations of the Study and Areas for Future Research ........................................................ 108
Limitations of the Study ...................................................................................................... 108
Areas for Future Research ................................................................................................... 109
THE CULTURE OF SUPPORTING AND RETAINING TRANSITIONING MILITARY
ix
Final Summary and Conclusion .............................................................................................. 111
References 112
Appendix A 128
Appendix B 129
Appendix C 130
Appendix D 131
Appendix E 133
Appendix F 134
Appendix G 135
Appendix H 138
Appendix I 140
THE CULTURE OF SUPPORTING AND RETAINING TRANSITIONING MILITARY
x
List of Tables
Table 1. Key Terms and Definitions 8
Table 2. Key Words and Search Strings 33
Table 3. Search Strings 33
Table 4. Inclusion/Exclusion Criteria 35
Table 5. Search Results by Database 36
Table 6. Quality Appraisal Tool 38
Table 7. Number of Studies by Type 45
Table 8. Populations and Study Types 45
Table 9. Average Quality Score, Number of Articles 46
Table 10. First Round Coding 47
Table 11. Second Round Coding 48
Table 12. Third Round Coding 48
Table 13. Fourth Round Coding 49
Table 14. Learning and Growth Perspective Scorecard 107
THE CULTURE OF SUPPORTING AND RETAINING TRANSITIONING MILITARY
xi
List of Figures
Figure 1. Organizational Culture Theoretical Model 14
Figure 2. Social Network Theoretical Model 17
Figure 3. Theoretical Model of Culture and Social Networks 18
Figure 4. Realist Evaluation Pathway 31
Figure 5. Articles Published by Year 44
Figure 6. Results of Synthesis Coding Outcomes 50
Figure 7. Cultural Audit Areas for Focus 106
THE CULTURE OF SUPPORTING AND RETAINING TRANSITIONING MILITARY
1
Chapter 1: Introduction and Overview of the Management Problem
Employee retention, an organization's ability to retain its employees, is a well-researched
topic and an essential factor in employee morale, organizational performance, and productivity.
Despite its popularity in human resource management and research, United States military
veteran retention remains a largely unstudied problem. In fact, most of the research conducted on
veteran retention relates to the retention of veteran students.
This dissertation provides practitioners with actionable information about what the
literature has to say regarding how organizations can provide a supportive organizational culture
that increases the retention of transitioning United States military veterans.
Background and Overview of Veteran Transition
Hiring veterans has become a high priority for many organizations across the United
States (U.S.). Organizations are attempting to profit from veterans' unique skill sets and are
focused on hiring practices and advertising campaigns that promote hiring from the veteran
population. Businesses that hire veterans benefit from their specialized skill sets, training, ability
to work hard under pressure, ability to multitask, and experience working in large hierarchical
organizations. The research strongly supports the value of veteran employees' unique skills that,
when properly captured by the civilian workforce, can be a strong asset to any business (Ford,
2017, p. 43). Many veterans possess higher levels of formal education and specialized skills than
their civilian counterparts. Also, veterans possess many of the work characteristics valued by
civilian employees, such as loyalty, strong work ethic, leadership, teamwork, adaptability, and
the ability to remain focused under stressful conditions.
In addition to benefiting from hard-working veteran employees, employers may also
receive benefits from government programs aimed at improving veteran employment. Employers
THE CULTURE OF SUPPORTING AND RETAINING TRANSITIONING MILITARY
2
have access to programs that provide tax incentives for hiring veterans, such as the Work
Opportunity Tax Credit (WOTC), and other like programs. WOTC is a federal tax credit for
private sector businesses that employ members of groups with employment barriers, including
some veterans (Scurfield & Platoni, 2013).
Veterans transitioning into civilian life can struggle with moving away from the military
culture and towards their new civilian culture (Demers, 2011). Adjustments with transit into the
civilian workforce may be exacerbated by feelings of disconnection from family, friends,
coworkers, or anyone who does not share in the military culture and experiences. This
disconnection occurs when many veterans no longer have daily contact with their military peers,
leaving veterans without a support network during a critical time. Transitioning veterans often
lack access to the same social support and social networks as their civilian counterparts due to
the frequency of moves while on active duty (Clemens & Milsom, 2008, p. 246). This lack of
social support can negatively affect a veteran's transition (Kintzel & Castro, 2018, p. 119).
This civilian integration process can be increasingly difficult for veterans left unprepared
for transition, leaving them unsatisfied with civilian work-life ((Harrod et al., 2017, p. 261).
However, organizations with an inclusive environment, cognizant of veteran culture, skills, and
disabilities, can create a leadership and peer support culture that may reduce veteran turnover.
Problem Statement and Significance of the Problem
The impact of employee turnover is significant for organizations and can affect
productivity, revenues, and the satisfaction of the remaining employee. Within the civilian
THE CULTURE OF SUPPORTING AND RETAINING TRANSITIONING MILITARY
3
workforce, turnover rates are approximately 27%1 annually
Mentoring as a way of advancing tenure and promotion in higher education institutions in the United States: A systematic review
No full textTenure positions have come under increasing attack in American higher education institutions. Some have called for the total abolishment of tenure, while others have advocated strengthening higher Education tenure practices. Non-tenured positions have increased the challenges to higher education tenure systems, while tenure-track and tenured positions are decreasing. The lack of transparency in the tenure process in higher education institutions in the United States can increase tenure denial. Pre-tenured faculty are unsure of the requirements that must be met to obtain tenure. Because the criteria are often not documented or well understood, the tenure process may also allow bias and discrimination. Consequently, institutions may suffer litigation and potentially lose out on retaining good faculty. The purpose of this study was to examine how mentoring pre-tenured faculty at higher education institutions in the United States influences their ability to get tenure and advance in their educational career. This dissertation was conducted using 28 relevant articles from 2000 through 2020 on higher education tenure and promotion practices in the United States. Using the Social Cognitive Theory by Albert Bandura as the theoretical lens, this systematic review provided evidence that individual knowledge or skill can be developed by observing others. The present study uses a realist synthesis epistemological approach. A thematic analysis of the literature provided evidence of how faculty mentoring can be used as a mechanism in creating a practical feedback loop during the pre-tenure evaluation process. The findings showed that faculty mentorship in academia creates institutional knowledge about the tenure and promotion process that junior faculty typically lack. Higher education implies that senior faculty who are tenured are often unwilling to mentor a junior faculty due to time constraints. Institutions should promote mentoring programs and partnerships, provide incentives to encourage tenured faculty to mentor, and establish a positive learning environment where pre-tenured faculty can develop the necessary career skills. This study contributes to the body of research on the topic of mentoring in higher education institutions in the United States.i
ABSTRACT
Title of Dissertation: MENTORING AS A WAY OF ADVANCING TENURE AND
PROMOTION IN HIGHER EDUCATION INSTITUTIONS IN THE
UNITED STATES: A SYSTEMATIC REVIEW
Patience Ebuwei,
Doctor of Business Administration, 2020
Tenure positions have come under increasing attack in American higher education institutions. Some
have called for the total abolishment of tenure, while others have advocated strengthening higher
Education tenure practices. Non-tenured positions have increased the challenges to higher education
tenure systems, while tenure-track and tenured positions are decreasing. The lack of transparency in the
tenure process in higher education institutions in the United States can increase tenure denial. Pre-tenured
faculty are unsure of the requirements that must be met to obtain tenure. Because the criteria
are often not documented or well understood, the tenure process may also allow bias and
discrimination. Consequently, institutions may suffer litigation and potentially lose out on retaining good
faculty. The purpose of this study was to examine how mentoring pre-tenured faculty at higher
ii
education institutions in the United States influences their ability to get tenure and advance in their
educational career. This dissertation was conducted using 28 relevant articles from 2000 through 2020
on higher education tenure and promotion practices in the United States. Using the Social Cognitive
Theory by Albert Bandura as the theoretical lens, this systematic review provided evidence that
individual knowledge or skill can be developed by observing others. The present study uses a realist
synthesis epistemological approach. A thematic analysis of the literature provided evidence of how
faculty mentoring can be used as a mechanism in creating a practical feedback loop during the pre-tenure
evaluation process. The findings showed that faculty mentorship in academia creates
institutional knowledge about the tenure and promotion process that junior faculty typically lack. Higher
education implies that senior faculty who are tenured are often unwilling to mentor a junior faculty due
to time constraints. Institutions should promote mentoring programs and partnerships, provide
incentives to encourage tenured faculty to mentor, and establish a positive learning environment where
pre-tenured faculty can develop the necessary career skills. This study contributes to the body of
research on the topic of mentoring in higher education institutions in the United States.
Keywords: career advancement, faculty mentoring, higher education, mentoring, promotion
program, tenure, tenure denial
iii
Mentoring as a Way of Advancing Tenure and Promotion in Higher Education Institutions in the United
States: A Systematic Review
By
Patience Ebuwei
Dissertation submitted to the School of Business,
University of Maryland Global Campus, in partial fulfillment
of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Business Administration
2020
iv
© Copyright by
[Patience Ebuwei]
v
Preface
As an educator in a higher institution, I find the tenure and promotion process to be fluid. It
lacks clarity as different institutions in the United States have different requirements, making it difficult
for faculty on the tenure track to understand the tenure requirements fully. This misunderstanding is
not mutually exclusive to one institution in the United States. This dissertation focuses on the challenges
faculty members faced in attaining tenure and promotion in higher institutions in the United States. The
lack of mentoring and clarity in the tenure process makes it more difficult for tenure track faculty
members to attain tenure or promotion.
This dissertation is the original work of Patience Ebuwei. I conducted a systematic review of the
literature to highlight the needs for faculty mentoring. This dissertation should be of interest to higher
institutions and faculty on the United States tenure track trajectory. This dissertation looks at factors
and practices that hinder a pre-tenure faculty in attaining a tenure position in higher institutions using
the Social Cognitive Theory by Albert Bandura. This research contributes to the body of research in
higher education tenure and promotion practices by shedding light on the importance of mentoring a
new faculty in higher education institutions in the United States.
vi
Dedication
Obtaining a doctoral degree was not part of the plan for me. As a Nigerian by birth and a
woman, it was not even a dream or an option. Still, because of my wonderful husband, Dr. Saunders
Ebuwei, who invested in me and believed in me, I am able to join this very small population. My dear
husband, you pushed and encouraged me, and even when this dream seemed impossible, you
motivated me to reach for the moon and shoot for the stars. Even when people have written me off,
you always saw the best in me, supported me, and gave me the strength to carry on during stressful
times. This achievement belongs to you, and whatever this achievement brings, I will forever be
indebted to you. You are the pioneer of my journey and motivator in my academic journey.
To my only son, Saunders Peter Ebipade Ebuwei Jr., you paid the ultimate price for this
achievement. With your charm, resilience, and understanding of my imperfection during this process, I
owe this success to you. You are now 16 years old, and that is how long you have paid the ultimate
price. Thank you for your acceptance and tolerance when I had to miss your home runs and touchdowns
at your games.
To Tomuke and Regina Ebuwei, thank you very much for all you have done and for taking
Ebipade sometimes when I desperately needed the space. To my family in Nigeria, I dedicate this to you.
To God, be the glory for this opportunity and who has guided me and made this possible.
vii
Acknowledgments
I am thankful for the guidance and support of the numerous people who have guided me
through this doctoral journey. I want to express my most profound appreciation to all the faculty
members at UMGC, who contributed to my doctoral knowledge. I am most grateful to my dissertation
adviser, Dr. Denise Breckon, who has given me all the opportunity to succeed during this dissertation
process - a process that took a toll on me, but you never gave up on me. You guided me and pushed me
through the finish line in completing this journey. I will always remember the mentoring and tutoring
that you gave and sometimes even on the weekends. Your unwavering support and guidance are the
testimony to this journey. And to Dr. Bouchard, my second dissertation adviser, thank you very much for
taking the time to guide and provide your expert knowledge in supporting me in this journey.
This acknowledgment would not be complete without acknowledging the professors who have
contributed to this doctoral journey. I want to recognize Dr. Mierzwa, Dr. Jarrow, Dr. Witz, Dr. Collins,
and Dr. Blaney. I owe this achievement to your willingness to invest your time in my doctoral journey. I
would also like to acknowledge Cynthia Thomes, who is always willing to render her expert knowledge in
contributing to my dissertation search strings and library guidance in searching for electronic materials.
To my fantastic cohort, wow, you guys are the best. You supported one another and pulled me
through when I was not willing to carry on. The thought of joining another cohort kept me going. To
Clark and Ellen, I can proudly say I am a publisher because of both of you. I am very grateful for this
opportunity. To my colleagues, thank you for your support and encouragement; this means a lot to me.
This acknowledgment cannot be complete without acknowledging my wonderful family, who
continually stood by me and gave me the slack I needed to achieve this goal. To my husband, I am
indebted to you. To my son, I say thank you, and you have endured the most, even when I was not able
to be at your games or school activities. I missed critical moments because I was either in the car reading
or completing an assignment. I saw the pains in your eyes while other parents watched their children
viii
playing. I missed home runs while you played baseball and your touchdowns when you played football,
and you always said that it was okay.
Most Importantly, I am very grateful to God Almighty, who gave me the grace and fortitude to
bear it all. The good Lord guided me through the Red Sea and brought me to the finish line.
ix
Table of Contents
ABSTRACT .......................................................................................................................................................... I
PREFACE ........................................................................................................................................................... V
DEDICATION .................................................................................................................................................... VI
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ..................................................................................................................................... VII
TABLE OF CONTENTS ........................................................................................................................................ IX
LIST OF TABLES ................................................................................................................................................. XI
LIST OF FIGURES .............................................................................................................................................. XII
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW OF THE MANAGEMENT PROBLEM ................................................. 1
DEFINITION AND BACKGROUND OF TENURE ......................................................................................................................... 1
MENTORING OVERVIEW ................................................................................................................................................. 3
DISSERTATION PROBLEM STATEMENT ............................................................................................................................... 4
PURPOSE OF THE STUDY ................................................................................................................................................. 5
SIGNIFICANCE OF THIS STUDY AND ITS IMPORTANCE TO HIGHER EDUCATION ............................................................................. 5
RESEARCH QUESTION ..................................................................................................................................................... 7
THE RATIONALE FOR THE STUDY ....................................................................................................................................... 8
ORGANIZATION OF THE DISSERTATION .............................................................................................................................. 10
CHAPTER 2: SCOPING LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORETICAL FRAME .............................................................. 11
DISCUSSION OF THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK ....................................................................................................................... 11
LANDSCAPE OF RELATED LITERATURE ............................................................................................................................... 13
Tenure Problems in Higher Education ................................................................................................................. 14
Mentoring in Higher Education ........................................................................................................................... 16
Tenure Solutions for Higher Education ............................................................................................................... 18
Alternative Perspectives in the Literature ........................................................................................................... 21
Theoretical Framework Summary ....................................................................................................................... 22
LITERATURE INTERPRETIVE MODEL/CONCEPTUAL MODEL .................................................................................................... 23
Thesis Statement ................................................................................................................................................ 23
CHAPTER 2 SUMMARY ................................................................................................................................................. 24
CHAPTER 3: METHOD ....................................................................................................................................... 25
CONFIGURATIVE APPROACH .......................................................................................................................................... 25
REALIST SYNTHESIS ...................................................................................................................................................... 26
SEARCH STRATEGY ....................................................................................................................................................... 26
Systematic Review Search Terms ........................................................................................................................ 27
Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria ........................................................................................................................... 28
Data Extraction .................................................................................................................................................. 30
THE EVIDENCE-BASED RESEARCH FRAMEWORK .................................................................................................................. 31
CRITICAL APPRAISAL TOOLS ........................................................................................................................................... 33
THEMATIC SYNTHESIS ................................................................................................................................................... 37
CHAPTER 4: ANALYSIS AND FINDINGS ............................................................................................................... 39
ANALYSIS AND RESULTS ................................................................................................................................................ 41
Code Weaving .................................................................................................................................................... 43
SYNTHESIS OF ARTICLE RESULTS ..................................................................................................................................... 44
Theme 1: Career Advancement ........................................................................................................................... 45
x
Theme 2: Tenure Denial ..................................................................................................................................... 49
Theme 3: Feedback Loop .................................................................................................................................... 51
Theme 4: Building University Capabilities ........................................................................................................... 54
Theme 5: Mentoring Influences Tenure and Promotion ..................................................................................... 56
Theme 6: Mentoring Programs ........................................................................................................................... 58
CHAPTER SUMMARY .................................................................................................................................................... 60
CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS ................................................................................................. 62
REVIEW OF THE RESEARCH ............................................................................................................................................ 63
ANSWER TO THE RESEARCH QUESTION ............................................................................................................................. 64
Career Advancement .......................................................................................................................................... 64
Tenure Denial ..................................................................................................................................................... 65
Feedback Loop ................................................................................................................................................... 66
Building University Capabilities ........................................................................................................................... 67
Mentoring as an Influencer in Tenure Practices.................................................................................................. 67
Mentoring Program in Higher Education ............................................................................................................ 68
IMPLICATIONS FOR HIGHER EDUCATION PRACTICES ............................................................................................................. 69
LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY ........................................................................................................................................... 71
AREAS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH ....................................................................................................................................... 71
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION ........................................................................................................................................ 74
REFERENCES ..................................................................................................................................................... 75
APPENDIX A ..................................................................................................................................................... 89
APPENDIX B ..................................................................................................................................................... 90
APPENDIX C ..................................................................................................................................................... 91
xi
List of Tables
Table 1: CIMO Framework……………………………………………………………………………………………………………..……8
Table 2: Study search process ……………………………………………………………………………………………………..……28
Table 3: List of study article design ……………………………………………………………………………………………..……34
Table 4: Classification system study designs………………………………………………………………………………………35
Table 5: TAPUPAS………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………37
Table 6: TAPUPAS scores of each article………………………………………………………………………………………..….40
Table 7: Themes and Definitions……………………………………………………………………………………………………....45
xii
List of Figures
Figure 1: Theoretical Framework……………………………………………………………………………………………………… 13
Figure 2: Conceptual Framework…………………….…………………………………………………………………………………23
Figure 3: PRISMA flowchart…..……………
The influence of employee engagement on the retention of support staff employees in the federal government: A systematic review of strategies that lead to employee engagement
No full textAs employee turnover in the federal government continues to increase, so does the need for managers to create a work culture that promotes employee engagement. Employee engagement and retention are vital to an organization's productivity and competitive edge. The purpose of this dissertation was to explore strategies that first-line supervisors in the federal government could use to increase employee engagement and improve the retention of support staff employees. The theoretical framework used for this study was based on Thibault and Kelley's social exchange theory. This study's research methodology was a systematic review based on a thematic synthesis using a configurative approach. The systematic review included 36 peer-reviewed empirical studies from 2010-2020, evaluated for quality and relevancy in answering the research question. Data analysis involved using dedoose software 8.0.35 to compile the data, disassemble the data into codes, and reassemble the data into themes. Five key findings emerged as strategies: (a) authentic leaders positively influence engagement; b) managers provide timely training and development to improve retention and career growth. (c) Job resources foster engagement; (d) supervisors create a positive work environment that encourages engagement, improves retention, and (e) managers and supervisors develop and maintain an effective performance management process. When implemented, these strategies should lead to a culture of engagement in which supervisors acknowledge the critical role support staff have in influencing organizational performance and productivity. This dissertation provides significant value to federal government managers in that it shows that first-line supervisors often behave in a transactional manner with support staff. By creating a culture in which supervisors behave with respect and authenticity in their relationship with subordinates, the federal government should experience a reduction in turnover of critical support staff talent and thus better retention of essential employees.Running Head: STRATEGIES THAT LEAD TO EMPLOYEE ENGAGEMENT i
ABSTRACT
Title of Dissertation:
THE INFLUENCE OF EMPLOYEE ENGAGEMENT ON THE RETENTION OF SUPPORT STAFF EMPLOYEES IN THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT: A SYSTEMATIC REVIEW OF STRATEGIES THAT LEAD TO EMPLOYEE ENGAGEMENT
Flore-Nadine Storey,
Doctor of Management, 2020
As employee turnover in the federal government continues to increase, so does the need for managers to create a work culture that promotes employee engagement. Employee engagement and retention are vital to an organization's productivity and competitive edge. The purpose of this dissertation was to explore strategies that first-line supervisors in the federal government could use to increase employee engagement and improve the retention of support staff employees. The theoretical framework used for this study was based on Thibault and Kelley's social exchange theory. This study's research methodology was a systematic review based on a thematic synthesis using a configurative approach. The systematic review included 36 peer-reviewed empirical studies from 2010-2020, evaluated for quality and relevancy in answering the research question. Data analysis involved using dedoose software 8.0.35 to compile the data, disassemble the data into codes, and reassemble the data into themes. Five key findings emerged as strategies: (a) authentic leaders positively influence engagement; b) managers provide timely training and development to improve retention and career growth. STRATEGIES THAT LEAD TO EMPLOYEE ENGAGEMENT
ii
(c) Job resources foster engagement; (d) supervisors create a positive work environment that encourages engagement, improves retention, and (e) managers and supervisors develop and maintain an effective performance management process. When implemented, these strategies should lead to a culture of engagement in which supervisors acknowledge the critical role support staff have in influencing organizational performance and productivity. This dissertation provides significant value to federal government managers in that it shows that first-line supervisors often behave in a transactional manner with support staff. By creating a culture in which supervisors behave with respect and authenticity in their relationship with subordinates, the federal government should experience a reduction in turnover of critical support staff talent and thus better retention of essential employees.
Keywords: employee engagement, retention, the federal government, support staff employees, social exchange theory, turnover, first-line supervisors, strategies
STRATEGIES THAT LEAD TO EMPLOYEE ENGAGEMENT iii
THE INFLUENCE OF EMPLOYEE ENGAGEMENT ON THE RETENTION OF SUPPORT STAFF EMPLOYEES IN THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT: A SYSTEMATIC REVIEW OF STRATEGIES THAT LEAD TO EMPLOYEE ENGAGEMENT
By
Flore-Nadine Storey
Dissertation submitted to the School of Business,
University of Maryland Global Campus, in partial fulfillment
of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Management
2020 STRATEGIES THAT LEAD TO EMPLOYEE ENGAGEMENT iv
© Copyright by
[Flore-Nadine Storey]
2020 STRATEGIES THAT LEAD TO EMPLOYEE ENGAGEMENT AND RETENTION v
Dedication
This dissertation is dedicated to everyone in my family who supported my efforts throughout the process. I would like to specifically thank God, who gave me strength and courage, my husband, Michael Storey, and my children, Anabelle and Michael Jr. Storey, for their patience, support, and total understanding during some of my most difficult times. Most of all, I would like to dedicate this work to my parents, Joseph Prevel and Germanie Garaud, and my sister, Martine Jerome, who never gave up on me and my academic goals. STRATEGIES THAT LEAD TO EMPLOYEE ENGAGEMENT AND RETENTION vi
Acknowledgements
I want to acknowledge Dr. Deborah Wharff for her guidance, support, and dedication during my dissertation journey. Also, for her expert opinions and recommendations while serving on my dissertation committee. Without my entire cohort's expertise and support, this project's success would not have been possible. I would like to extend my gratitude to all my family and friends who continued to offer their support and never doubted my ability to achieve my goals. STRATEGIES THAT LEAD TO EMPLOYEE ENGAGEMENT AND RETENTION vii
Table of Contents
Abstract ........................................................................................................................................ i-ii
Dedication ...................................................................................................................................... v
Acknowledgements ........................................................................................................................ vi
Table of Contents ................................................................................................................. viiii-viii
List of Tables ................................................................................................................................ ix
List of Figures ................................................................................................................................ x
Chapter 1: Introduction and Overview ........................................................................................ 1-2 Background ..............................................................................................................................3-4
Levels of Employee Engagement. .......................................................................................... 5
Leadership, Employee Engagement and Retention ................................................................ 6 Problem Statement and Significance of the Problem ............................................................7-10
Purpose and Significance of the Study ..................................................................................... 10 Research Question .....................................................................................................................10
Definitions/Terminology...................................................................................................... 11-12
Chapter Summary ..................................................................................................................... 12 Organization of the Dissertation ..........................................................................................12-13
Chapter 2: Scoping Literature Review and Theoretical Frame .................................................... 14
Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 14
Theoretical Framework: Social Exchange Theory (SET) ......................................................... 15
Social Exchange Theory Background. .................................................................................. 15
Assumptions. ......................................................................................................................... 16
SET and Employee Engagement. ......................................................................................... 16
SET in the Workplace. ..................................................................................................... 16-17 Scoping of the Literature ..................................................................................................... 17-19
Definition of Employee Engagement............................................................................... 19-21 Employee Engagement Strategies.....................................................................................21-29 Communication, Recognition, WLB, Job Design, Compensation ..................................... 21-29 Conceptual Framework/Model ............................................................................................ 29-30 Chapter Summary ..................................................................................................................... 31 Introduction/Research Design .............................................................................................. 32-33 Chapter 3: Method.......................................................................................................................32
STRATEGIES THAT LEAD TO EMPLOYEE ENGAGEMENT AND RETENTION viii
The Evidence-Based Research Framework ......................................................................... 34-37 The Systematic Review Process .......................................................................................... .....37 Thematic Synthesis Approach to the Review ........................................................................... 37 Stages of the Systematic Review Process ............................................................................ 37-40 Research Question ............................................................................................................... 40-42 Search Strategy ................................................................................................................... 42-43 Search Terms. ....................................................................................................................... 43 Search Process. ..................................................................................................................... 43 Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria. ..................................................................................... 43-44 Quality Appraisal of Literature ............................................................................................45-46 Appraisal Method – Pawson’s TAPUPAS. ..................................................................... 46-48 PRISMA Diagram. ........................................................................................................... 49-50 Analysis and Synthesis of the Studies ................................................................................ 51-52 Data Extraction (Coding). ................................................................................................ 53-55 Chapter Summary ..................................................................................................................... 56 Chapter 4: Analysis and Findings ................................................................................................. 57 Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 57 Description of the Data set ....................................................................................................57-58 Results of the Quality Appraisal Data Set ............................................................................58-59 Study Characteristics and Coding .................................................................................... 60-62 Findings and Discussions Based on Synthesis and Analysis. .......................................... 62-63 Finding 1 .......................................................................................................................... 64-67 Finding 2. ......................................................................................................................... 67-69 Finding 3. ......................................................................................................................... 69-71 Finding 4. ......................................................................................................................... 71-73 Finding 5 .......................................................................................................................... 73-75 Summary of the Findings ..................................................................................................... 75-77 Revised Conceptual Model .................................................................................................. 78-79 Chapter Summary ..................................................................................................................... 80 Chapter 5: Conclusions and Implications ..................................................................................... 81 Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 81 Review of the Research/Answering the Research Question ................................................ .81-83 Recommendations ................................................................................................................ 83-86 STRATEGIES THAT LEAD TO EMPLOYEE ENGAGEMENT AND RETENTION ix
Limitations and Future Research ......................................................................................... .....87 Final Summary and Conclusions ......................................................................................... 88-89 Chapter Summary .................................................................................................................89-90 References .............................................................................................................................. 91-107 Appendix A .......................................................................................................................... 108-117 Appendix B .......................................................................................................................... 118-123 Appendix C ...........................................................................................................................124-131 Appendix D .......................................................................................................................... 132-135 STRATEGIES THAT LEAD TO EMPLOYEE ENGAGEMENT AND RETENTION x
List of Tables
Table 1: Research Question Applied to CIMO Model
Table 2: Subjects Included/Excluded in the Search Process
Table 3: TAPUPAS Framework
Table 4: Results of the Quality Appraisal of the Data set
Table 5: Codes and Definitions
Table 6: Categorization of Evidence, Journal and Geographical Locations
Table 7: Overview of the Findings and Related Authors STRATEGIES THAT LEAD TO EMPLOYEE ENGAGEMENT AND RETENTION xi
List of Figures
Figure 1: Conceptual Model Illustrating the Proposed Relationship between Study Factors
Figure 2: Stages in a Systematic Review
Figure 3: The PRISMA Flow Diagram
Figure 4: Example of an Empirical Study in Dedoose 8.0.35 Library
Figure 5: Revised Conceptual Framework. STRATEGIES THAT LEAD TO EMPLOYEE ENGAGEMENT AND RETENTION 1
Chapter 1: Introduction and Overview of the Management Problem
Regardless of its size or what industry it operates in, every organization has one thing in common: the organization must maintain an adequate level of employee retention of its support staff. With new generations entering and beginning to dominate federal government organizations, a paycheck simply is not enough to retain outstanding employees anymore. Employees, particularly support staff personnel in the federal government, seek a sense of purpose (Kurter, 2019). In today's competitive marketplace for skilled support staff personnel, employee engagement is a critical determinant of workforce retention and organizational success. Furthermore, improving the retention of support staff employees in the federal government is vital to improving government performance. This dissertation examines strategies that influence employee engagement among federal government first-line supervisors and support staff employees and assesses whether those strategies positively affect outcomes associated with employee retention.
Organizations that promote employee engagement create environments where productivity, loyalty, customer satisfaction, and organizational reputations thrive. Supervisors who develop a good rapport with their direct reports are more effective and engaged leaders and managers (Gallup, 2016). Employee engagement is an essential aspect of managing federal government organizations, especially when the first-line supervisor and employee relationship is strained due to a lack of alignment between organizational goals and performance feedback, time constraints, and a common supervisory skill set. First-line supervisors typically are expected to be experts in their technical discipline while performing their work and providing supervisory support to their direct reports. These supervisory duties include training, career development, and performance management, mentoring, and coaching. When a first-line supervisor's technical role STRATEGIES THAT LEAD TO EMPLOYEE ENGAGEMENT AND RETENTION 2
or functions takes precedence over supervisory duties, support staff can feel ignored, disconnected, and disenfranchised from their supervisors, managers, and the organization they serve.
The effective functioning of federal government organizations is highly dependent upon support staff to execute critical functions. Support staff serves in vital roles to ensure continuity of mission and functions. Support staff provide organizational management, financial, and administrative support to Chief Executive Officers (CEOs), directors, senior managers, and team leaders and ensure all operational functions run efficiently. Federal government support staff include Administrative Officers, Administrative Assistants/Technicians, Program Specialists, Management Analysts, Human Resource Specialists, Information Technology Specialists, Data Analysts, and Program Coordinators. Securing or retaining support staff in the federal government has become a challenge as the knowledge and skills of highly qualified employees are sought by all organizations across all work sectors, creating a competitive disadvantage for those organizations that fail to recognize the importance of employee engagement between first-line supervisors and support staff personnel.
This dissertation is an evidence-based management systematic review that examines strategies that lead to employee engagement and the retention of federal government support staff employees, referred to as support staff throughout this dissertation. The chapter starts with an overview and background of the study, addresses the problem statement, the research question, and the study's purpose to include the study's scope. Finally, the chapter concludes with the research's significance and discusses the key concepts discussed in Chapter 2. STRATEGIES THAT LEAD TO EMPLOYEE ENGAGEMENT AND RETENTION 3
Background and Overview
Engagement focuses on motivating employees to work hard, but it also pertains to why individuals give their best effort to perform the work assigned to them (Saks, 2006, p. 602). Therefore, engagement is a two-way relationship between supervisors and employees. Employees want to feel valued, remain in their job, and contribute to their success. The federal government senior management must provide a working environment and create a culture to ensure employees and supervisors are genuinely engaged in the workplace to reach these goals.
Employee engagement is an approach used in the workplace that consists of an organizational purpose, commitment, involvement, enthusiasm, and energy. Engaging and retaining employees is a significant challenge for human resource management, organizational managers, and supervisors. Federal government organizations rely on human resource management (HRM) organizations to exercise methods to reduce employee turnover. Human resources management organizations use various strategies and practices to select, recruit, develop,
The Role of Leadership and Organizational Culture in Influencing Employee Silence: A Systematic Review of the Evidence.
No full textEmployee silence is a silent killer of organizations, stripping them of lost revenue, productivity, and divergent thought. If organizations wish to reduce employee silence behaviors, they need to understand the factors in their organizational culture and leadership that have an influence on employee silence. This research uses a systematic review to find these organizational culture and leadership factors. Systematic review identifies, analyzes and synthesizes existing research relevant to a research question. Sixty-nine research articles were analyzed after excluding research that was duplicative, not relevant, and did not meet the defined quality criteria. The evidence suggested organizational cultures that are ethical, open, supportive, and provide a participative climate led to reduced employee silence behaviors. The evidence also suggested that the leadership factors influencing reduction in employee silence are high levels of honesty, inclusivity, two-way communication, role clarity, accountability, and solicitation of feedback. These results imply that to reduce employee silence organizations should design and maintain organizational cultures that provide many ways for employees to participate in the decision-making process, are open to hearing feedback, fair to employees, and are supportive. The results indicate that a reduction in employee silence behaviors can also be achieved through leadership. The leaders who want to reduce employee silence need to have high ethical standards for themselves and others, encourage and ask for employee participation in decision-making, provide clear direction to employees of their role, and act when given feedback.1
Master’s Doctoral journey. I can’t thank you enough for the Thursday night dinners,
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sitively influenced the level of an employee’s psychological capital/selfpatient’s life is on the linemember exchange because of China’s high culture. This was due to employee’s believing that leaders rightfully have power based on the leader’s ranking in the organizational hierarchy. While Zhang et al.’s (2015) research did conclude that authoritarianism hindered reduced the employee’s status judgement, employee’s power distance orientation based on the cultural norms of Korea significantly between an organization’s culture and leadership. Organizational cultures influence the actions aders also influence the organization’s culture.
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item scale or Knoll and vanDick’s (2013) 12 company. Knowing the levels of their employee’s unique s
employee’s level of influence, psychological safety, and selfthem. The research suggested that participative leaders positively influenced an employees’ also increased an employee’s level of psychological capital and self
item or Knoll and van Dick’s (2013) scale to measure the level been defined as the process of gathering information about an individual’s behaviors from important circumstance in the workplace and trust that their expectations of the organization’s behaviors will match with reality. Differences between an employee’s perception and the organization’s reaynthesize data from multiple sources. MacLure (2004) wrote that “systematic review suppresses aspects of quality in research and scholarship” (p. 394). MacLure (2004) suggested standardized format, and tried “to transform reading and writing into accountable acts” (p. 393). psychological contracts, as well as a leader’s behavior on social exchange in the workplace.
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Rhee, J., & Yoon, J. (2016). Entrepreneur’s paternalistic –Knoll, M., & van Dick, R. (2013). Do I hear the whistle…? A first attempt to measure four
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