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Toward a model for measuring results of environmentally sustainable business practices utilizing management accounting techniques: A balanced scorecard approach
No full textABSTRACT
This study begins by presenting an historical framework of pollution and environmental
considerations through the industrialization of the Twentieth Century. That is, the cost evasion of
organizations dumping their environmental responsibilities upon society. Although economic
development requires the consumption of resources and the byproduct production of various
effluents, managing this negative externality is paramount in the Twenty-first Century business
setting.
Aiding mangers with techniques that provide decision-makers enhanced information, as
well as adding profit to the firm, the management accounting profession has evolved throughout
this same industrializing timeframe. It is incumbent upon the profession that techniques fostering
the strategic management of the firm regarding this mismanaged arena are developed.
Our global society indicates that a paradigm shift has occurred regarding both the
perception and correction of environmentally unfriendly organizations and practices. From the
United Nations’ (1987) Brundtland Commission that first termed the phrase and definition of
environmental sustainability, through the Nobel awards, little doubt remains about the
importance of the environment for businesses and their stakeholders.
This study aids in discerning and developing the mechanisms necessary to reduce and
correct environmental damages, the cost must be placed on where the problem originates.
Eliminating cost evasion through statute or market forces, and then allowing organizations to
manage their respective issues through environmentally sustainable business practices (ESBP),
executes this desired outcome. Therefore, measuring ESBP through management accounting
techniques provides the information to manage ESBP, and developing a balanced scorecard to
incorporate ESBP in the strategic objectives of the firm achieves that result.ESBP: BSC 1
Toward a Model for Measuring Results of Environmentally Sustainable Business Practices
Utilizing Management Accounting Techniques: A Balanced Scorecard Approach
A DISSERTATION
Presented to the Graduate School of Management and Technology
University of Maryland University College, Adelphi, MD
In Partial Fulfillment
of the Requirements for the Degree
Doctor of Management in International Operations Management
Edward Pitingolo
December 14, 2009
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Copyright 2009
Edward Pitingolo
All Rights Reserved
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Dissertation Advisor
Michael A. Evanchik, PhD
Associate Dean, Strategic Planning
Graduate School of Management and Technology
University of Maryland University College
3501 University Blvd East
Adelphi, MD 20783
ESBP: BSC 4
ABSTRACT
This study begins by presenting an historical framework of pollution and environmental
considerations through the industrialization of the Twentieth Century. That is, the cost evasion of
organizations dumping their environmental responsibilities upon society. Although economic
development requires the consumption of resources and the byproduct production of various
effluents, managing this negative externality is paramount in the Twenty-first Century business
setting.
Aiding mangers with techniques that provide decision-makers enhanced information, as
well as adding profit to the firm, the management accounting profession has evolved throughout
this same industrializing timeframe. It is incumbent upon the profession that techniques fostering
the strategic management of the firm regarding this mismanaged arena are developed.
Our global society indicates that a paradigm shift has occurred regarding both the
perception and correction of environmentally unfriendly organizations and practices. From the
United Nations’ (1987) Brundtland Commission that first termed the phrase and definition of
environmental sustainability, through the Nobel awards, little doubt remains about the
importance of the environment for businesses and their stakeholders.
This study aids in discerning and developing the mechanisms necessary to reduce and
correct environmental damages, the cost must be placed on where the problem originates.
Eliminating cost evasion through statute or market forces, and then allowing organizations to
manage their respective issues through environmentally sustainable business practices (ESBP),
executes this desired outcome. Therefore, measuring ESBP through management accounting
techniques provides the information to manage ESBP, and developing a balanced scorecard to
incorporate ESBP in the strategic objectives of the firm achieves that result.
ESBP: BSC 5
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER Page
1. INTRODUCTION………………………………………………………… 4
Purpose and Problem Statement………………………………………. 4
Non-sustainability as a Negative Externality…………………………. 4
Proactively Adopting Sustainable Development………........................ 13
Relevance for Management.…………………………………………… 14
Definitions of Key Terms………………………………………………. 17
2. REVIEW OF LITERATURE……………………………………………….. 22
Multi-faceted Disciplines……………………………………………….. 22
Environmental Sustainability…………………………………………… 23
Management Accounting Concepts…………………………………….. 27
Management Accounting Related to Decision-Making ……………….. 30
Measuring Environmentally Sustainable Business Practices…………… 33
The Balanced Scorecard…………….…………………………………... 36
3. CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK.…………………………………………… 39
Thesis……………………………………………………......................... 39
Adapting the Balanced Scorecard..……………………………………… 40
The Balanced Scorecard in an ESBP Model…..………………………… 44
Proposed Approach to Including ESBP in the Balanced Scorecard…….. 47
4. CONCEPTUAL MODELS …………………………………………………… 50
An Illustration for the Steel Fabricating Industry ………………………... 50
Value-Chain Elements Related to the Balanced Scorecard Perspectives…. 57
An Individual Analysis: Theatre Appliance Company…………………… 65
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5. DISCUSSION, RECOMMENDATIONS, AND CONCLUSION…………… 79
Revisiting the Original Purpose of this Study and Thesis……………….. 79
Management Implications and Portability of this Study..……………….. 87
Recommendations for Practice and Future Research……………………. 89
Conclusion……………………………………………………………….. 91
Summary…………………………………………………………………. 92
APPENDIX I…………………………………………………………………………….. 93
REFERENCES……………………………………………….…………………………. 99
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Chapter 1
Introduction
Purpose and Problem Statement
Purpose. The purpose of this study is to identify the role managerial accounting should
play in the measurement of environmentally sustainable business practices (ESBP) by utilizing
the balanced scorecard. There are multiple components for the accounting of ESBP and this
research focuses on two. First, that organizations fail to include active measures aligning ESBP
in their strategic planning, many of which are required now by regulation. Second, there are no
agreed upon procedures for measuring the viability of such programs and no uniform cost
measurement method exists. Embodied in the management accounting mission, these
measurements are necessary for cost management of the organization, as cost information
impacts decision-making throughout the general management spectrum of the firm.
Non-sustainability as a Negative Externality
Cost evasion. The fundamental issue behind the proposition that organizations behave in
an environmentally sustainable manner is the societal impact of non-sustainable practices. A firm
may produce at a lower cost and achieve sufficient market penetration to be considered
successful. However, a firm may achieve this by mass degradation of land and polluting massive
amounts of water, air, and consume energy inefficiently. This successful firm is evading the full
costs, as it is shuffling its responsibility to repair its environmental damage to the rest of society.
Providing employment and other economic opportunity does not mitigate this cost burden shift
(Porter, M., & van der Lunde, 1995). This negative impact on the environment external to the
firm is the problem addressed here. This negative externality must be redressed by the
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implementation of sustainable practices by organizations, and the appropriate measures must
guide them in that quest.
Cost models. Several models exist for capturing these environmental costs. The
International Organization for Standardization espouses a quality cost approach, whereas the
organization achieves heightened or improved quality in its products and processes by
considering environmental factors (ISO, 2008). This quality model defines the traditional aspects
of quality both internally and externally, but in the vision of sustainable development.
Since regulatory pressures surround many companies, as governments throughout the
world recognized the necessity for producers to capture their environmental costs and force
companies to be environmentally conscious, a compliance mentality toward environmentally
sustainable business practices became common. This minimalist mentality approaches
environmentally sustainable business practices as overhead, with no positive consequences or
value-added effects to the firm, therefore the least cost incurred is desirable (Porter, M., & van
der Lunde, 1995). Practitioners of this philosophy should beware, as environmental cleanup costs
for current unrecognized pollution can result in substantial future payments, even if the firm is
complying with today’s standards.
High energy costs. Reaching all-time highs in 2008 (Energy Information Administration,
2008), energy and fuel prices contributed to reduced profitability for many firms. This cost
transfers across the supply-chain creating an inflationary spiral increasing costs of production. In
addition to the increase in the direct cost of the resources that businesses consume to fabricate
goods or to provide services, the indirect costs that using these resources have on the
environment are also dramatically increasing. Managing its resources successfully will allow
companies to sustain their long-term competitiveness.
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Widespread environmental concerns. International pressures are mounting regarding
global warming and the related greenhouse gas emissions that act as an insulator in the
atmosphere, capturing heat. Some chemicals and gases aiding the Twentieth Century’s industrial
development cause harm to the ozone layer of the atmosphere. Some chemicals are now illegal
because of their harmful environmental side effects (Blacksmith Institute, 2008).
There is a growing mandate for organizations to adopt environmentally sustainable
business practices on a wide scale basis. Increasingly, buildings are expected to reduce the
impact on their surroundings and consume less resources including energy. Products are assumed
to be manufactured with recycling the end vision of a product’s life. Productive processes are
assumed not to pollute the air, water, or land. Solid waste and land degradation are frowned upon
and organizations are expected to minimize its impact (Ambec & Lanoie, 2008).
Historical perspective of environmentalism. Concerns about the environment are rooted
in the industrial revolution because of the wholesale pollution that occurred. Organizations that
owned the factors of production necessary for the United States and other industrialized nations
to produce the goods demanded by the populace were not considering the cost to the
environment. Mining for minerals, timbering forests, energy consumption, and chemical
processing caused environmental issues on a widespread scale. Coupled with growing post-consumer
waste and the additional burden of disposing of that waste, government took action to
regulate pollution.
Unsustainable practices. Pollution represents a market failing of the industrial revolution
forcing modern efforts towards sustainable business practices. Inherent in its manufacturing
process, where the raw materials are mined non-renewable minerals, to the smokestack
production processes, industrialization of the Twentieth Century constituted sustainability
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nightmares. Formulated in the business models of industrial titans, the vertically integrated mode
of industrialization did not allow for an environmentally sustainable paradigm.
The operations of many industrialized sectors of that time relied upon development of end-user
products to stimulate demand for the base resource (D’Costa, 1999). For example, General
Electric produced newly invented appliances in a technology-push to stimulate demand for
electricity (Reich, 1992). Likewise, steel producers developed products of industrial-age
innovation to spur demand for steel production (Wright, 1990).
Pollution of all types. Manufacturing processes helped create the concept of
industrialization as smokestack industries, causing major pollution. Primary environmental
consequences of industrialization include land-use pollution from the mining and expulsion of
solid waste byproducts; air pollution from the fumes emitted during the production process
through incineration of the various composite minerals, sometimes so significantly diminished
Photograph 1. Pittsburgh in 1945. The clock in
the right foreground indicates the time as
11:00 a.m. The air pollution often made
streetlights necessary during the day. Photo
credit: Library and Archives Division,
Historical Society of Western Pennsylvania,
Pittsburgh, PA
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sunlight that streetlights were used during the day (Photograph 1), and; water pollution from the
discharge of water employed in the production process mixed with chemical runoff (PA DEP,
n.d.). Moreover, mining pollutes vast quantities of water supplies as streams flow over broken
rocks and earth causing a chemical reaction between water and pyrites, known as acid mine
water. According to the Environmental Protection Agency, “acid drainage from abandoned coal
mines is the primary water quality problem” in the Appalachian Mountain basin, polluting some
13,000 miles of streams; many steel producing states lie in that geographic area (Todd &
Reddick, 1997). The cost of cleaning past environmental disasters due to mineral extraction and
steel production includes estimates as high as fifteen billion dollars for Pennsylvania alone, the
nation’s leader in such environmental damage (Citizens Advisory Council, 2002).
Enter the EPA. By the 1960s, the damage from industrialization became so apparent that
government mandated regulation. In the 1970s, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
became the Federal arm of the United States government for overseeing legacy pollution, law
enforcement of violations, and setting policies for a clean environment. States soon followed,
with their own administration for managing environmental resources. Passed down from the
Federal level, the highlights of EPA administration include establishment of the Superfund laws
in the 1980s, laws that required reclamation of sites that were dangerously polluted; the Clean
Air Act of 1970 and its amendments in the 1990s stiffening regulations for emissions and
allowing for governmental partnering with businesses to solve environmental issues, and;
controlling mercury emissions, improving air quality, and cleaner diesel policies of the 2000s
(EPA, 2007).
International concerns. United Nations policies expound guidance and suggest policies
for environmental management. The United Nations and its conglomerated agencies have issued
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various studies and comprehensive reports. Studies of the growth of population and the related
effect have several iterations (United Nations Population Fund, 2001). Another far-reaching
study is the Industry as a partner for sustainable development report that gives a sector-by-sector
analysis of environmental considerations (United Nations Environment Programme, 2002). Most
governments have administrative bodies dedicated to the protection of the environment.
Sustainable development identified. The concept of sustainability originated in 1987 with
a United Nations directive popularly known as the Brundtland Commission. It resulted in the
definition of sustainability as development in the present should occur only if it does not hinder
development for future generations, specifically with environmental implications (United
Nations, 1987). Noticing the current state of the environment, growth in industrialized countries,
and the potential for growth in underdeveloped countries, the Brundtland Commission sought to
explore this growth in ways that would not harm the environment.
Consumption from economic development. China, India, other Asian countries, Russia,
and the former Soviet Union’s Eastern European satellites are developing their respective
economies (Asian Development Bank, 2008). This hemispherical aggregation of development
not only contributes to the consumption of common resources and creates the upward price
movement per the economic laws of supply and demand, but this growth contains the potential
for environmental destruction. Coupled with growth in already industrialized nations, the
environmental impact of consumption may appallingly damage the planet (United Nations
Population Fund, 2001).
The United Nations and individual countries created paradigms for managing
environmental concerns (United Nations Environment Programme, 2002). Many organizations
comply with governmental organizations in accommodating the respective regulations. These
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compliance procedures and their related costs typically are considered overhead for the business,
often a necessary burden that reduces profitability through the related expense. However, a trend
appears to be developing that the cost of these programs, indeed espousing environmental
sustainability in general, may be seized as an opportunity to aid the firm by being value-added
(Dean and McMullen, 2007). Neglecting the potential for value-added contributions from
environmentally sustainable business practices and relegating such concepts into an overhead
requirement poses a threat to the long-term future of any firm.
Cross-competing priorities. Compounding the problem of increasing environmental
stress due to economic development, consumption of resources, and fuel issues, is that there are
cross-competing attributes in environmentally sustainable business practices. For example,
should an organization or a community decide to recycle paper? If so, the energy consumed to
collect and recycle the paper and then convert it into new paper may be of a larger quantity than
the energy consumed by traditional methods of paper production. This cross-competition is
demonstrated readily by ethanol production, a substitute for gasoline with supposedly less
harmful environmental consequences. Although ethanol seemingly represents both an eco-friendly
alternative and a supply replacement for dwindling gasoline, its production causes other
environmental problems such as land degradation. Moreover, consumption of the raw materials
for the production of ethanol causes price inflation in the food sector, as corn is the primary input
for conversion to ethanol. There are many scenarios for this cross-competing problem, and a
uniform strategy that prioritizes environmentally sustainable business practices for efficient
allocation of resources does not exist. Should policy makers favor energy over land degradation,
or clean water over clean air? Should natural wildlife hold precedence over forest restoration?
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These cross-competing priorities exist amongst sustainability practices themselves, without
beginning to consider economic development and other societal concerns.
Current organization activity in sustainability. Anecdotally, businesses may conduct
environmentally sustainable business practices for a variety of reasons. Because of the emerging
popularity for pro-environment activity, organizations may perform sustainable endeavors as a
marketing technique, currying favoritism by a customer base or garnering positive public
relations from their ecological pursuits (Ambec & Lanoie, 2008). A range certainly exists in
committing to environmental sustainability: from perfunctory obligation to governmental
regulation, to minor activity such as office recycling, to using recycled materials as inputs of
production, to completing certifications for various ecological credentials, to embracing
environmental sustainability across the value-chain and in the strategic plan.
Recycling. The most familiar method of environmentalism is recycling. Although
originating earlier in the Twentieth Century, commitment to recycling continued in earnest
during the 1990s. State and local governments required by statute recycling of common solid
waste such as paper, glass, plastic, and metal containers. Recycling centers sprang up and
became fashionable for a variety of residential and commercial environments. Recycling even
became popular as a fundraiser for non-profit organizations (Pennsylvania DEP, n.d.).
Certification credentialing. Several credentials defining sustainability within the
organization exist. A popularly known element of building construction certification is the
leadership in energy and environmental design (LEED™) rating system. LEED™ systems
present a project certification that a construction undertaking meets certain environmentally
responsible criteria (U.S. Green Building Council, 2008).
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The International Organization for Standardization (ISO, 2008) developed a series of
standards for environmental management, under the ISO 14000 sequence. Compliance with
these standards and the resulting certification implies that an organization has undertaken the
necessary policies and procedures to meet regulatory environmental requirements in its
operations. These policies provide guidance for managing environmental concerns. Additional
series of certifications, such as those relating to construction activities, have been developed as
differe
Reconciling the disconnect between information technology and information systems using an organizational epistemology: A framework to improve success with technology
No full textAbstract
There is a disconnect between information technology (IT) and information systems (IS)
that lies at the foundation of frequent failure in cost, schedule, and/or performance of IT/IS. This
disconnect can perhaps be reconciled through a focus on the socially constructed and emergent
nature of IT as it enters and is used by an organization. The argument is that IT investment is not
working with the right knowledge for evaluation and justification and does not reflect human
nature in decision-making. The hypothesis is that a structured dialog technique, by focusing on
properly perceiving human felt needs rather than exclusively technological aims, improves the
process of IT project evaluation and justification. This breaks the requirements development
process into multiple, time-efficient steps in order to properly acquire and convert tacit
knowledge into explicit and then embedded knowledge. The research questions include: What
are the foundations of IT/IS failure, and how do they relate to the absence or presence of
structured dialog? What are the dimensions of structured dialog that help fulfill the gap between
users’ felt needs and IT specifications? Finally, what are the aspects of tools and methods
applied in early investment lifecycle activities that can, or seem to, fulfill these dimensions?
This study posits a conceptual decision framework using structured dialog to perhaps prevent IT
failure. The research starts with an analysis of IT/IS failure factors using a metaevaluation
approach tailored for qualitative, interpretive analysis as a metainterpretation with respect to IT
case studies and a synthesis of those factors. Then, a pilot of a survey approach is performed to
profile and test elements of structured dialog and associated early lifecycle tools with the
Dissertation - POWELL ii
business/mission process community and technologists. This is then made practical by creating a
conceptual decision framework for management to use in framing complex investment decisions
such as IT investment. The framework includes obtaining early clarification of the purpose of
the new IT/IS system, improving team dynamics to enable better collaboration, making a
specific, shared decision as the basis of collaboration, and focusing on structured dialog. The
elements of structured dialog found to underlie this decision framework are the production and
use of shared meaning, creation and use of common language, repetition and continuation of
dialog, and facilitation of shared experience. These elements achieve an organizational
epistemology, or knowledge framework, that can potentially facilitate more accurate acquisition
and development of IT (that is, the system-as-created), and perhaps lay the foundation for
subsequent transition into IS (that is, the system-as-used) that an organization should use in the
manner needed and intended. In addition, this epistemology underlies the process, and products,
of successful IT/IS architecture.Dissertation POWELL i
Title: Reconciling the Disconnect between Information Technology and Information Systems
using an Organizational Epistemology: A Framework to Improve Success with Technology
Author: Chris R. Powell
Abstract
There is a disconnect between information technology (IT) and information systems (IS)
that lies at the foundation of frequent failure in cost, schedule, and/or performance of IT/IS. This
disconnect can perhaps be reconciled through a focus on the socially constructed and emergent
nature of IT as it enters and is used by an organization. The argument is that IT investment is not
working with the right knowledge for evaluation and justification and does not reflect human
nature in decision-making. The hypothesis is that a structured dialog technique, by focusing on
properly perceiving human felt needs rather than exclusively technological aims, improves the
process of IT project evaluation and justification. This breaks the requirements development
process into multiple, time-efficient steps in order to properly acquire and convert tacit
knowledge into explicit and then embedded knowledge. The research questions include: What
are the foundations of IT/IS failure, and how do they relate to the absence or presence of
structured dialog? What are the dimensions of structured dialog that help fulfill the gap between
users’ felt needs and IT specifications? Finally, what are the aspects of tools and methods
applied in early investment lifecycle activities that can, or seem to, fulfill these dimensions?
This study posits a conceptual decision framework using structured dialog to perhaps prevent IT
failure. The research starts with an analysis of IT/IS failure factors using a metaevaluation
approach tailored for qualitative, interpretive analysis as a metainterpretation with respect to IT
case studies and a synthesis of those factors. Then, a pilot of a survey approach is performed to
profile and test elements of structured dialog and associated early lifecycle tools with the
Dissertation - POWELL ii
business/mission process community and technologists. This is then made practical by creating a
conceptual decision framework for management to use in framing complex investment decisions
such as IT investment. The framework includes obtaining early clarification of the purpose of
the new IT/IS system, improving team dynamics to enable better collaboration, making a
specific, shared decision as the basis of collaboration, and focusing on structured dialog. The
elements of structured dialog found to underlie this decision framework are the production and
use of shared meaning, creation and use of common language, repetition and continuation of
dialog, and facilitation of shared experience. These elements achieve an organizational
epistemology, or knowledge framework, that can potentially facilitate more accurate acquisition
and development of IT (that is, the system-as-created), and perhaps lay the foundation for
subsequent transition into IS (that is, the system-as-used) that an organization should use in the
manner needed and intended. In addition, this epistemology underlies the process, and products,
of successful IT/IS architecture.
Dissertation - POWELL iii
Reconciling the Disconnect between Information Technology and Information Systems using an
Organizational Epistemology: A Framework to Improve Success with Technology
Doctor of Management Dissertation
Christopher R. Powell
UMUC
November 15, 2009
Committee
Dr. Hasan Sayani, Chair
Dr. Husein Abdul-Hamid, Member
Dr. Claudine SchWeber, Member
Dissertation - POWELL iv
Dissertation - POWELL v
Dedication and Acknowledgements
This is dedicated to my wife, Bonnie Jean, and my daughter, Emilie Alyson Grace, who provided
ongoing support and encouragement throughout my pursuit of a Doctorate while working full
time. Without their love and strength, this effort would not have been possible.
I acknowledge the following people, who provided key support throughout this endeavor:
Tim Keenan – President & CEO, High Performance Technologies, Inc.
Kristen Baldwin – Deputy Director, OUSD(AT&L) DDRE/SE/System Analysis
Dissertation POWELL vi
Dissertation - POWELL vii
Table of Contents
Abstract ........................................................................................................................................... i!
Dedication and Acknowledgements ............................................................................................... v!
List of Tables & Figures ................................................................................................................ ix!
List of Abbreviations ..................................................................................................................... xi!
CHAPTER 1: BACKGROUND, PURPOSE, RESEARCH QUESTIONS, SIGNIFICANCE ...... 1!
Introduction and Relevance ..................................................................................................... 1!
Purpose and Research Questions ............................................................................................ 6!
Purpose .................................................................................................................................. 6!
Research Questions ............................................................................................................. 10!
Theoretical Background ......................................................................................................... 11!
Thesis, Focus, and Argument ............................................................................................. 17!
Significance .......................................................................................................................... 22!
Limitations and Constraints .............................................................................................. 23!
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW ...................................................................................... 29!
Concept Map ........................................................................................................................... 29!
Literature Review and Analysis ............................................................................................ 32!
IT Research – A Review ......................................................................................................... 63!
Knowledge Framework – A Foundation ............................................................................... 67!
Conclusion ............................................................................................................................... 71!
CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH APPROACH AND METHOD ........................................................ 74!
Research Approach ................................................................................................................. 76!
Phase I: Case Study Metaevaluation ................................................................................. 78!
Phase II: Reviewing Customer Experiences Using a Survey .......................................... 84!
Scope .................................................................................................................................. 95!
Validity ................................................................................................................................ 96!
Data sources ....................................................................................................................... 101!
Detailed Research Plan ..................................................................................................... 102!
Conclusion ............................................................................................................................. 115!
CHAPTER 4: RESEARCH DATA AND DISCUSSION .......................................................... 118!
Phase I – Data from the Case Study Metaevaluation ........................................................ 119!
Phase I Conclusion ................................................................................................................ 139!
Phase II – Data from the Survey Pilots ............................................................................... 140!
Step 1: Survey Development and Pre-Pilot (Eight BPA Professionals) ........................... 140!
Step 2: Survey Pilot (24 BPA Users) ................................................................................... 140!
Phase II Conclusion .............................................................................................................. 145!
CHAPTER 5: ANALYSIS, FUTURE APPLICATIONS, AND EXTENSIONS ...................... 148!
Analysis ................................................................................................................................. 148!
Research Activity Summary ............................................................................................ 154!
Summary of Phase I - Metaevaluation ............................................................................ 155!
Summary of Phase II – Survey ........................................................................................ 157!
Definition of Decision Framework .................................................................................. 160!
Future Applications .............................................................................................................. 172!
Potential Future Research ................................................................................................ 178!
Extensions .............................................................................................................................. 179!
Dissertation - POWELL viii
Conclusion ............................................................................................................................. 183!
Glossary ..................................................................................................................................... 188!
References .................................................................................................................................. 190!
Appendix A. Institutional Review Board Form .......................................................................... 212!
Appendix B. Survey Instrument ................................................................................................ 218!
Appendix C. Case Study Metaevaluation Data – Research Question 1 .................................... 240!
Appendix D. Linkage of Case Study Metaevaluation to the Survey Instrument and Research
Questions .................................................................................................................................... 256!
Appendix E. Survey Data – Research Question 2 ..................................................................... 258!
Appendix F. Survey Data – Research Question 3 ...................................................................... 282!
Index .......................................................................................................................................... 292!
Dissertation - POWELL ix
List of Tables & Figures
Figure 1 - Concept Map ................................................................................................................ 30!
Figure 2 - Summary of appraisal techniques, approaches, and references (Irani, et al., 1997) .... 42!
Figure 3 - The matrix of benefits and their impact (Farbey et al., 1993) ...................................... 47!
Figure 4 - Synthesizing Requirements Development ................................................................... 61!
Figure 5 - Process of Metainterpretation (Weed, 2005) ............................................................... 80!
Table 1 - IT Failure Factors from Jones (1996) .......................................................................... 120!
Table 2 - Root Causes for Failure Factors from Jones (1996) .................................................... 124!
Table 3 - IT Failure and Risk Factors from Ewusi-Mensah (2003, p.43) ................................... 132!
Figure 6 - Crosstab of Survey Questions .................................................................................... 142!
Figure 7 - Hierarchy of IT Failure Factors .................................................................................. 175!
Figure 8 - Concept Map of IT Success Factors ........................................................................... 181!
Dissertation - POWELL x
Dissertation - POWELL xi
List of Abbreviations
AHP Analytic Hierarchy Process
CBA Cost-Benefit Analysis
CEO Chief Executive Officer
CLIN Contract Line Item
CST Critical Social Theory
DCF Discounted Cash Flow
DoD U.S. Department of Defense
DoDAF Department of Defense Architecture Framework
FAP Financial Appraisal Profile
FMS Flexible Manufacturing System(s)
GAO General Accountability Office
GB Gigabyte (1 billion bytes)
HPC High Performance Computing
ICT Information and Communication Technologies
ID Identification
IEC International Electrotechnical Commission
IEEE Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
IPT Integrated Program Team
IRB Institutional Review Board
IRR Internal Rate of Return
ISO not an acronym, but commonly used for International Organization for
Standardization
IS Information System
IT Information Technology
Km Kilometer (1000 meters)
KM Knowledge Management
MB Megabyte (1 million bytes)
MIS Management Information System(s)
NPV Net Present Value
OE Organizational Epistemology
OUSD Office of the Undersecretary of Defense
PADR Prospector-Analyzer-Defender-Reactor
PB Petabyte (1 quadrillion bytes)
PC Personal Computer
PMO Program Management Office
PPBS Programming-Planning-Budgeting System
R&D Research & Development
ROI Return on Investment
SOS System of Systems
TB Terabyte (1 trillion bytes)
U.S. United States
Dissertation POWELL 1
CHAPTER 1: BACKGROUND, PURPOSE, RESEARCH QUESTIONS, SIGNIFICANCE
Introduction and Relevance
Evaluation and justification of IT are both complex and difficult (Serafeimidis, 2001, p. 99;
Wang, 2007; Mondragon et al., 2001), particularly given the high rate of failure in IT projects
(upwards of 40-95%, depending on methodology and definition of failure [Dalcher & Drevin,
2003; Charette, 2005; Reel, 1999; Verner et al., 2007; Whiting, 1998; Ewusi-Mensah, 2003;
Flowers, 1996; Jones, 1996]). The financial measures typically used by firms to evaluate any
project (such as ROI [Return on Investment], NPV [Net Present Value], IRR [Internal Rate of
Return, etc.]), when applied to technology projects, attempt to be quantitative, precise, and
certain. However, as an innovation project applied to a social group (organization), an IT project
has benefits that are frequently intangible and uncertain (Lefley, 1996). This clash between the
need for discrete performance measurement and the intangibility of innovation in social groups
caused a long period of research (from about 1976 through 2001; see Ch. 2) that attempted to
bring these financial and intangible poles together. Many techniques were brought to the table,
but few could be empirically tested because of many factors including political, cultural, and
accounting tradition. The need for insightful evaluation has, if anything, become greater as IT
becomes more complex and touches more parts of an organization’s value proposition,
foundation, and partners, particularly leading to the “death of geography”; as the enterprise
model becomes extended, strategic alliances become more important, and the organization
begins its shift to more of a “virtual” model (Irani et al., 1997). So, there is a need for a new
look and new tools to be applied to this area, to arrive at something practical for management to
apply and for technologists to support. A key part of this problem is defined as a lack of balance
Dissertation - POWELL 2
between episteme (knowledge or science, of the organization and of IT) and techne (craft or art,
of implementing IT and other business/mission systems) in the organization—based on a lack of
shared meaning and a lack of a basis for that shared meaning—which reinforces the existence of
only tangential touch points between these frequently opposing forces and which concomitantly
and continually reduces IT project success. An enterprise-wide approach that enables IT to take
a strategic view of the organization is required (Irani et al., 1997, p. 697).
We know from management literature (particularly Simon, 1997, and related, such as
Horkheimer, 1954; Farbey, Land, & Targett, 1992; and Dörner, 1996) that we humans, making
microeconomic and many other decisions, are subject to our own bounded rationality. As a
result, we satisfice decisions, using information we believe is salient to the decision, almost
regardless of whether that information is the most microeconomically optimal. This is
particularly applicable in executive decision-making and in decision-making related to IT, which
Farbey et al. (1992) found is subject to four main heuristics: act of faith, obeying orders, step-by-step,
and got-to-do all more deeply explained in Chapter 2). This research will show that many
IT evaluation and justification methods attempt to get around human satisficing through many
objective and subjective decision methods, including financial (objective) and heuristic
(subjective) methods, among others. In executive teams, financial metrics have particular
weight, and so we may expect to find that the heuristic methods at that level may favor financial
metrics. In fact, Farbey et al. (1992) found that while executives seem to favor such metrics, that
does not mean that they are truly making their decisions based on the objective financial analysis
at hand.
This leaves us with a question about whether management information used in satisficing
decisions can be “set” to some degree, submerging less relevant information and maximizing the
Dissertation - POWELL 3
prominence of information with the most utility to the decision at hand. It could be said that
many aids to management decision-making attempt to do just that, as they “load the deck” with
report after report that contain much interesting and relevant information. Yet, we know that
many decisions fail to attain their objectives, particularly in IT, where project failure can occur
as high as 40-95% (Dalcher & Drevin, 2003), depending on the definition of failure. The types
of dysfunctional executive behavior that drive this failure include acting without prior analysis of
the situation and failing to anticipate side effects and long-term repercussions, among others
(Dörner, 1996). So, the present “deck-loading” does
Professional Development Resources for UMUC Faculty and Staff - DE Oracle
No full textDE Oracle @ UMUC
An Online Learning Magazine for UMUC Faculty
Center for Support of Instruction
Professional Development Resources for UMUC Faculty and Staff
Linda Smelser
Instructional Support Specialist
Non UMUC
Published: November-December 2009
Category: » Fac-resources » Faculty-development
If you are looking to enhance your professional development at a low cost, look no further. Low/no-cost
professional development resources are available for both faculty and staff from a variety of sources,
including UMUC, Baltimore-Washington metropolitan academic institutions, and national educational
organizations. UMUC provides a number of professional development opportunities through institutional
memberships with academic organizations and via the Center for Teaching and Learning (CTL). The list
below identifies these and other free professional opportunities with a brief explanation of their
offerings. The list was compiled from information provided by staff who support UMUC faculty in the
Office of Instructional Services and Support (OISS).
Institutional Memberships and Local Organizations
UMUC is a member of the following academic organizations that provide professional development
resources through a variety of in-person and online events. Staff and faculty can access free resources
at these organizations as UMUC employees. The educational services and events at these free sites are
endless. Tutorials, courses, open educational resources, videos, articles, and more are available for the
interested educator. Most of the sites ask users to create individual accounts using a personal e-mail
address.
National Educational Organizations
Sloan-C (http://www.sloan-c.org/) is a consortium of individuals and organizations dedicated to improving
online education. Sloan-C offers opportunities to share knowledge through participation in conferences,
research initiatives, online seminars, and academic publications. To sign up for the Sloan-C Workshops,
follow the instructions on the CTL Web site (http://www.umuc.org/distance/odell
/ctla/online_workshop_form_sloan.shtml) .
EDUCAUSE (http://www.educause.edu/) is an academic organization that promotes the intelligent use of
information technology in higher education. Professional opportunities are available for online events,
special interest groups, and applied research. Discounts are available for conferences and publications.
To join, when prompted, choose UMUC from the list of institutions.
The Teaching, Learning, and Technology Group (http://www.tltgroup.org/) (TLT Group) is a grassroots
organization that helps colleges and educators collaborate on issues about changes in technology. The
TLT Group offers online and face-to-face workshops on using technology to improve teaching and
learning. To join, go to the TLT site and list UMUC as your institution.
Local Organizations
The Maryland Distance Learning Association (http://www.marylanddla.org/about%20us.htm) (MDLA)
promotes the coordination of distance learning among Maryland's K-12 and higher education
institutions. Maryland institutions participate in MDLA's fall and spring conferences by offering sessions
that discuss new ideas for improving online education.
The UMBC Training Forum (http://www.umbc.edu/isd/prospectivestudents/trainingforum.html) at the University of
Professional Development Resources for UMUC Faculty and Staff - DE Oracle
Maryland Baltimore County (UMBC) offers quarterly in-person events for local educators. The forum
provides opportunities for well-known speakers to share ideas on training and education. Recent
speakers include the American Society for Training & Development's CEO Tony Bingham
(http://www.astd.org/ASTD/aboutus/leadership/) , Rapid Instructional Design's Sivasailam "Thiagi"
Thiagarajan (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CYqm8ao1i2c) (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CYqm8ao1i2c) , and
authors Dr. Michael Marquardt (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=z4GMaUInMfw) and Dr. Ruth Clark
(http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TuVakbMSPp4&NR=1) .
Open Educational Resources (OERs)
OERs are available for free by and for educators to share, adapt, and reuse. According to UMUC
librarians Rawson and Thomes in their article Open Educational Resources, there are over 300
institutions that develop and offer OERs. Below is a short list of OER sites; a more comprehensive list is
available in the Rawson/Thomes article.
The goal of Academic Earth (http://academicearth.org/) is to reduce barriers so that "everyone on earth"
has access to a world-class education. The site hosts a library of full video courses and lectures from the
world's leading scholars.
iTunes U (http://www.umd.edu/iTunesU/pdfs/iTunes_U_User_Guide.pdf) is a service designed by Apple for
institutions to manage a broad range of multimedia and PDF content available to iPhone and iPod users.
MIT is one of 28 colleges that has posted courses, campus speeches, and other events at iTunes U.
The Online Education Database (http://oedb.org/library/beginning-online-learning/200-free-online-classes-to-learn-anything)
(OEDb) includes a list of 200 free online classes in natural science, language, math,
engineering, and many other disciplines from a variety of accredited online colleges and programs.
YouTube EDU (http://www.youtube.com/edu) organizes video channels of more than 100 academic
institutions and allows viewers to sort clips by school or number of views.
Instructional and Technical Training
Adobe.com eSeminars (http://www.adobe.com/cfusion/event/index.cfm?event=list&type=eseminar&loc=en_us) are
live informational and instructional sessions related to Adobe products, such as Flex, Creative Suite 4,
Acrobat Connect Pro, and Captivate.
The Instructional Design Resource Center (http://idrc.midsolutions.org/) (formerly the Hitchhiker's Guide
to Instructional Design) is for online instructors and instructional support staff who are looking for ways
to improve online course delivery. Visitors can use the site to attend courses, find resources to develop
content, and get new ideas to enhance student learning. Forty self-paced courses, workshops, and
tutorials (http://idrc.midsolutions.org/course/index.php) are available on topics such as Assessment and
Evaluation, Content Development, Teaching with Blogs, Integrating Wikis into the Curriculum, and
Captivate 4.
O'Reilly Media (http://training.oreilly.com/) provides workshops and training videos on topics related to its
publications. Recent and current trainings include Android Applications, Building iPhone Apps, and Lean
Startup.
A variety of Wimba Online Workshops (http://www.wimba.com/company/events/wow/) are available each
week on best practices, designing activities, and tips for engaging learners for Wimba Live Classroom
and Voice Tools.
UMUC Center for Teaching and Learning
CTL offers several professional development opportunities for UMUC faculty and staff.
CTL presents online workshops throughout the year on a variety of topics ranging from Handling
Difficult Students to Best Online Instructional Practices. CTL facilitators are experienced UMUC faculty
who are using the principles they teach in the own classrooms. Classes run between one to three weeks
depending on the topic.
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SkillSoft (http://www.umuc.org/distance/odell/ctla/skillsoft-registration.shtml) training courses are online self-paced
modules that help build technical and business skills. There are ten technical modules offered, with
topics such as Creating Rubrics, Web Authoring (understanding and using HTML), and tutorials for
Microsoft products, such as PowerPoint, Vista and Outlook. The 17 business skills modules include topics
such as The Role of the Facilitator, The Impact of Culture on Communication, Working with Negative
People, and Enhancing Your Listening Skills.
The Faculty Development Workshop Certificate Program (http://www.umuc.org/distance/odell
/ctla/certificates.shtml) assists faculty in charting a course for their own professional development. The
certificate program, available in Basic and Advanced, offers opportunities to earn CEUs.
About the Author(s)
Linda works at UMUC as a SUS adjunct faculty, as a Center for Teaching and Learning trainer, and an instructional support
specialist in the Center for Support of Instruction. Linda understands the needs of nontraditional working students from both
first-hand experience and in her previous role as a UMUC academic advisor. She started her college career for the first time as
a working single mother and eleven years later received her Master's in instructional design from UMBC. Along with her
academic advising experience, Linda brings her expertise in the areas of quality customer support, corporate training,
technical writing and instructional design to CSI. I'm fortunate to be working in a true learning community environment to
produce effective results that meet the needs of a diverse clientele. In her spare time, Linda enjoys reading, yoga, mountain
biking, dancing, and traveling to California and Philadelphia to visit her children and grandchildren.
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Pedagogical Usage of Wimba - DE Oracle
No full textDE Oracle @ UMUC
An Online Learning Magazine for UMUC Faculty
Center for Support of Instruction
Pedagogical Usage of Wimba
Joanna (Xuan) Zhang
Instructional Support Specialist
Center for Support of Instruction
Published: March-April 2009
Category: » Online-pedagogy » Synchronous-communication
As a UMUC faculty member, you might have heard about Wimba and that it is now available at UMUC.
If you haven't yet attended the Center for Teaching and Learning's Wimba Workshop session, you
might be curious about Wimba and how it can be used for online teaching and learning. This article will
help you understand more about what Wimba is and explain some of the uses for Wimba tools.
What is Wimba?
Wimba is a suite of online communication tools that enhance communication, collaboration, and
interactivity, especially in distance education. Wimba applications allow instructors to easily incorporate
audio and visual components into online teaching and learning in both synchronous and asynchronous
ways. The product suite adopted by UMUC includes Wimba Classroom and a set of Wimba Voice Tools.
Wimba Classroom is a real-time virtual classroom environment with features that include audio/video,
application sharing, content display, polling, whiteboarding, text chat, and more. It allows faculty to
use a virtual classroom to broadcast live lectures, hold online meetings, and arrange various
teaching/learning activities such as office hours, tutoring, team projects, guest speakers, etc.
An archived Wimba Classroom session.
Wimba Voice Tools includes a set of audio communication applications including Voice Board, Voice
Direct, Voice Email, Voice Presentation, Voice Recorder, and Podcaster. A major benefit of these tools is
that the recorded messages can easily be embedded into the Conferences area of the WebTycho
classroom. The following list provides an overview about what feature(s) each tool offers:
Voice Email enables e-mail communication with integrated voice messages.
Voice Board is a threaded, audio-based discussion board. It allows faculty and students to post and
listen to voice messages within discussion boards.
Pedagogical Usage of Wimba - DE Oracle
Voice Direct enables synchronous communication in audio- and text-based formats, and the sessions
can be archived.
Voice Presentation allows faculty and students to present Web content along with voice messages.
It's especially useful for touring Web sites.
Podcaster enables faculty to easily create and distribute podcasts for subscription. It could be used for
creating mini lectures that students can listen to on the go.
Voice Recorder is an audio recording application for one-way communication from the faculty to the
student.
Educational Uses
The Brown Bag sessions hosted by the Wimba organization are webinars that are open to a number of
higher education institutions. The session attendees and Wimba representatives share their experiences
and tips for implementing Wimba. The information shared below documents some tips and experiences
from these Wimba webinar sessions to provide you with creative ideas for the pedagogical uses of
Wimba tools.
Lectures and Archived Lectures
One of the major uses of Wimba is to produce and broadcast live and recorded lectures and interactive
sessions. These sessions can be accessed both synchronously and asynchronously to enhance learning
at a distance. At the University of North Texas, a library sciences faculty member provides
pre-recordings of live lectures and other faculty-student interactive sessions. Students who have
attended the live sessions are able to use the pre-recordings to review the topic, and students who
miss the live sessions can access the archived versions. An advantage of using Wimba to record live
sessions is that faculty can repeatedly use the archived session every semester for all the course
sections. By reviewing the pre-recorded sessions, students have the opportunity to watch live sessions
of other students communicating with faculty. Many of their questions will be answered by reviewing
prerecorded sessions. At Northern Illinois University, some faculty who teach hybrid classes use Wimba
to replace the in-class lecture time with pre-recorded virtual lectures. In this way, faculty can reserve
their face-to-face time for assignment discussion.
In another case, an engineering degree program used Wimba lectures to meet the special needs of its
overseas students. Specifically, the college offers a hybrid learning program to its students in Taiwan.
In addition to the 13-hour face-to-face sessions, the overseas students wanted more synchronous
communication with faculty. To satisfy student needs, the faculty decided to present lectures through
Wimba synchronously to replace the asynchronous modules offered in their Blackboard-delivered
course. The overseas students seemed to prefer Wimba Classroom, and they especially valued the
video component that Wimba provides. They expressed that using video helped them to identify more
and feel a greater connection with the instructor. It was also reported that the archived lectures were
frequently viewed by students, which would not have been possible with a traditional face-to-face
lecture. Another benefit is that instructors can track how many students review archived sessions.
Another use of Wimba is to provide guest speaker sessions that can easily be facilitated and offered
through the use of Wimba tools. An instructor can invite non-local guest speakers to make virtual
presentations through Wimba without the hassle of travel, time, and costs that are required for
face-to-face sessions.
Language Learning
Many institutions have incorporated Wimba into their language and speech classes because Wimba
provides the audio/video component and asynchronous communication mode that makes it a creative
solution to online teaching and learning of languages and speech classes. A faculty member from
Pedagogical Usage of Wimba - DE Oracle
Boston College used Voice Email for mid-term exams in a Romance language class. The faculty asked
students to review online video clips before responding to questions sent by the faculty with Voice
Email. To complete the exam, students were required to respond to the faculty via Voice Email by a
specified deadline.
For another assignment, faculty asked students to make presentations in Wimba Classroom to practice
their speech skills. At Dickinson State University, speech sessions were recorded and archived using
Wimba Classroom so that faculty could evaluate students' speech performance at a distance.
Online language classes at SUNY-Jefferson used Wimba Voice Board for classroom discussions. One of
the advantages of Voice Board is that it gives students the opportunity to interact, practice languages,
and collaborate by using asynchronous audio- and text-based threaded discussions. This is a nice
enhancement compared to the traditional, pure text-based online discussion board.
Wimba tools are also convenient for one-on-one tutoring or foreign language conversational practice
sessions. A foreign language instructor from Estrella Mountain Community College arranged
conversation practice sessions so that students could listen to authentic pronunciation of foreign
languages and practice the language verbally along with the instructor. The faculty member was also
able to provide feedback to the students in an audio format. Another faculty member from Northern
Illinois University provided a creative solution for her "penpal" groups—using Wimba tools for
communication between students in the U.S. and China.
How-to Sessions
With the application sharing feature of Wimba Classroom, it's relatively easy for instructors to
demonstrate how to use a particular software application. An anthropology professor taught his
students how to use SPSS software by using Wimba Classroom's application sharing feature. This
feature allows instructors to share how-to instructions in real time to their online student audience.
These live classroom sessions can be recorded and archived for students to review again and again. In
another example, an instructor at North Dakota University provided archived how-to demos explaining
technical software usage to enhance students' self-paced learning.
Faculty-Student Communication
Many presenters in the webinars reported that Wimba greatly enhanced communication between
faculty and students. Faculty participants explained how they use Voice Email as an easy-to-use tool
that makes communicating with their online students more personal.
Another popular use of Wimba tools is to communicate with students during office hours. According to
a presenter from Tulsa Community College (TCC), using Wimba for office hours helped faculty connect
with online students and helped to establish more faculty presence in their distance classes.
Other faculty at TCC said that they use Wimba Classroom to offer orientations for classes at the
beginning of each semester. Wimba Classroom offers audio and video opportunities for students to
learn course structure and navigation of the online environment at the beginning of the class. It's
especially convenient when using Wimba Classroom synchronously because students can ask questions
and get an immediate response. Similarly, faculty in the nursing program at Northern Illinois University
hosted orientation sessions through Wimba before their students entered the internship program.
Online Collaboration
Last but not least, Wimba enables online collaboration to occur easily. With Wimba, students may
organize team meetings and continue discussions outside the regular classroom. Several presenters
reported that their online faculty asked students to collaborate on their team projects or make online
group presentations through Wimba.
Pedagogical Usage of Wimba - DE Oracle
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Summary
Overall, the Wimba suite has a variety of pedagogical uses. The above-mentioned examples are just a
few of them. You may want to experience the full capabilities of the product suite and the educational
possibilities it presents for distance educators.
If you would like further information about Wimba products, you can visit Wimba's Web site
(http://www.wimba.com/) (http://www.wimba.com/) . If you want to attend the Wimba Workshop offered by the
Center for Teaching and Learning, get in touch with the director of your program for information on
how to apply for the faculty training.
About the Author(s)
Joanna Zhang is an Instructional Support Specialist in UMUC's Center for Support of Instruction who helps faculty and
students use a variety of computer-based and Web-based applications to enhance their distance teaching and learning. Her
professional background focuses on instructional design, e-learning development, quality assurance, and training.
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Getting Published_ Tips and Refreshers for Faculty - DE Oracle
No full textDE Oracle @ UMUC
An Online Learning Magazine for UMUC Faculty
Center for Support of Instruction
Getting Published: Tips and Refreshers for Faculty
Erran Carmel
Professor and Orkand Chair
Graduate School of Management and Technology
Published: March-April 2009
Category: » Online-pedagogy » Teaching-strategies
Note: This article is adapted from the September 30, 2008, white paper for UMUC doctoral students
entitled "How to Get Published" by Professor Erran Carmel.
Why Publish?
Scholarship and publishing keep you active as a trained professional. These activities not only help your
teaching and increase your visibility but also contribute to the greater good by expanding our societal
knowledge. Currently, there is some recognition at UMUC for publishing scholarly papers—and this
recognition (and reward) will increase in the coming years.
If you are working on a project, you should try to prepare and publish some of your written work while
it is still fresh, as it is difficult to come back to the material two or three years later.
Where to Get Published
There are many channels for getting your work published. All of the following outlets provide
opportunities for academics to submit scholarly work:
Academic journals
Practitioner journals
Magazines
Conferences with proceedings
Books
UMUC working papers (http://contentdm.umgc.edu/cdm/search/collection/p15434coll5/searchterm
/UMUC%20Working%20Paper%20Series/field/series/mode/exact/conn/and/order/date!title/ad/asc/cosuppress/0)
(http://chaucer.umuc.edu/wp/)
Practitioner/industry journals may be a source for scholarly publishing, especially for management
faculty. While most industry journals are not considered "academic," some—such as the Harvard
Business Review—have great impact and reach a wide audience.
It is useful to find a list of all the outlets related to your field. For example, in my field (information
systems), a good list of journals (http://www.osu-tulsa.okstate.edu/nromano/wwwroot/iswjsp/ISWPSearchPage.asp)
can be found at the Association for Information Systems (http://home.aisnet.org/associations/7499/files
/Index_Markup.cfm) Web site.
Also, keep track of "special issues" that are in planning for the future (there will be notices posted on
the journal Web site). It may be easier to place your article if it fits to a theme issue.
Consider which model of peer review process is used to referee your manuscript submission. You need
to know if your manuscript will have to first pass muster with expert peers in the field. You also need
to know that, if published in such a peer-reviewed journal, your work is more likely to be regarded
Getting Published: Tips and Refreshers for Faculty - DE Oracle
seriously—rather than suspiciously—by readers. The journal's selectivity is part of its branding.
There are several models of peer review you may have to contend with, including:
Double-blind: Both authors and referees are anonymous.
One-way blind (also known as single-blind): The author does not know the identity of his/her paper's
reviewers but the reviewers know the author's identity.
Editorial review: The editor makes unilateral (and presumably very experienced) decisions.
Also keep in mind the journal's ranking. Generally speaking, A journals (also known as top-tier
journals) are prestigious and well cited, while B and C journals have lesser impact—fewer read them
and fewer cite them.
How to Get Feedback
Give an informal talk with your colleagues to share your work in progress.
Collaborate with other faculty or even talented students. Don't write alone.
Submit your paper to the new annual "Provost's Award for Best Paper in Online Education Research"
competition at UMUC. (See the Center for Teaching and Learning (http://www.umuc.edu
/ctl/provosts_award.cfm) (CTL) Web site for more details.)
Self-publish your work and ideas as you go along using blogs, online journals, cases, etc.
Submit to the UMUC working papers Web site (http://contentdm.umgc.edu/cdm/depositguidelines) . The
committee will give you feedback, as will readers who find your article.
Completing the Manuscript
When you have made the decision to prepare a manuscript for a scholarly publication, follow these
steps to keep yourself on track:
1. Make a short list of outlets that you will target in the next 12–24 months.
2. Set deadlines for yourself and stick to them.
3. Write to the editor with an abstract and ask if your article is a good fit.
4. Ask a colleague to read your draft.
Be sure to follow the writing, style, presentation, and submission rules for the outlet(s) you are looking
to publish with.
5.
The Review and Publishing Process: A Typical Timeline
Keep in mind that articles take time to get published—particularly those that appear in peer-reviewed
journals; it often takes roughly one year from the first submission date to the actual print date. The
timeline below represents a typical sequence for this process:
Cumulative
time (in
weeks)
Incremental
time (in
weeks)
Event/ Phase
Article sent to journal.
2 2 Editor reviews; if deemed fit, editor sends to two outside reviewers.
10 8 Outside reviewers return recommendations with detailed comments.
12 2 Editor looks over article one more time, looks over reviewers'
recommendations, and makes recommendation. Sends back to authors.
[Another revision is required in our narrative case.]
20 8 Authors revise paper and resubmit.
Getting Published: Tips and Refreshers for Faculty - DE Oracle
22 2 Editor reviews resubmission; if deemed fit, editor sends to the same two
outside reviewers.
30 8 Outside reviewers return recommendations with detailed comments.
32 2 Editor looks over article one more time, looks over reviewers'
recommendations, and makes overall recommendation. [Accepts paper in
our narrative story.]
35 3 Authors make final small modifications.
38 3 Galleys are prepared and sent to authors for review.
41 3 Authors review galleys and publisher accepts final changes.
49 8 Article awaits next printing of the journal.
Article is printed.
Additional Resources
The following sources on getting scholarly work published may also be helpful:
Hinchliffe, L. J., & Dorner, J. (Eds.). (2006). How to get published in LIS journals: A practical guide
(2nd ed.) [Brochure]. San Diego, CA: Elsevier Library Connect. http://www.elsevier.com
/framework_librarians/LibraryConnect/lcpamphlet2.pdf (http://www.elsevier.com/framework_librarians
/LibraryConnect/lcpamphlet2.pdf) (http://libraryconnect.elsevier.com/lcp/0202/lcp0202.pdf)
O'Neill, B. M. (1990). How to get published in a professional journal. Journal of Extension, 28(3).
http://www.joe.org/joe/1990fall/tt2.html (http://www.joe.org/joe/1990fall/tt2.html)
Reis, R. (n.d.). Writing a Paper that Will Get Published. Message posted to Tomorrow's Professor
electronic mailing list, archived at http://ctl.stanford.edu/Tomprof/postings/316.html
(http://ctl.stanford.edu/Tomprof/postings/316.html)
Stewart, David W. (2002, October). Getting published: Reflections of an old editor. Journal of
Marketing, 66(4), 1-6. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3203354 (http://www.jstor.org/stable/3203354)
About the Author(s)
Dr. Erran Carmel is serving as the Orkand Endowed Chair in Management and Technology in UMUC's graduate school for the
2008-2009 academic year while on leave from his regular position as a professor in the Information Technology department
of the Kogod School of Business at American University in Washington, DC, where he served as chair of the Information
Technology department from 2005-2008.
Dr. Carmel's area of expertise is globalization of technology. He studies global software teams, offshoring of information
technology, and emergence of software industries around the world. His 1999 book Global Software Teams was the first
on this topic and is considered a landmark in the field. His second book, Offshoring Information Technology, was
published in 2005 and is currently in its third printing. He has written over 80 articles, reports, and manuscripts; consults and
speaks to industry and professional groups; and has been a visiting professor at Haifa University (Israel) and University
College Dublin (Ireland). Dr. Carmel received his PhD in Management Information Systems from the University of Arizona, his
MBA from the University of California at Los Angeles, and his BA from the University of California at Berkeley.
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