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Women entrepreneurs in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
No full textAbstract: Although women entrepreneurs around the world suffer from numerous disadvantages such as discrimination, lack of business experience and limited access to financing, the challenges for women entrepreneurs may be more severe in Islamic countries where religion, cultural factors and lack of an entrepreneurial environment are additional deterrents. Despite this, a small but growing segment of women entrepreneurs exists, however the extent of women’s endeavors is virtually unknown due to concerns about privacy and lack of rigorous academic research. This report develops a sense of women entrepreneurs and their context is one of the first to focus on women entrepreneurship in an Islamic country. Hypotheses development proceeded by focusing on a leader within Islamic states ( Saudi Arabia), analysis of vehicles of mass culture such as news media, and assessment of factors through personal interviews. The findings confirm that Islamic countries are nascent cultures for women entrepreneurs, but that they are present. Islamic women entrepreneurs attribute success and failure in different terms than do their western counterparts, and identify a wider set of obstacles and unique strategies to function well. This study serves as the foundation for further academic research into the topic of women’s entrepreneurship in Islamic cultures. Given the exploratory nature of this study, it is recommended that this research be expanded to a statistically valid base within Saudi Arabia, and then to expand the study to additional countries.UMUC Working Paper Series – Number 2009‐002
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Women Entrepreneurs in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
By
Dr. Dorothy Minkus-McKenna
Professor, Department of Business & Executive Programs
University of Maryland University College (UMUC)
[email protected]
January 2009
UMUC Working Paper Series – Number 2009‐002
Women Entrepreneurs in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
Abstract
Although women entrepreneurs around the world suffer from numerous disadvantages
such as discrimination, lack of business experience and limited access to financing, the
challenges for women entrepreneurs may be more severe in Islamic countries where religion,
cultural factors and lack of an entrepreneurial environment are additional deterrents. Despite
this, a small but growing segment of women entrepreneurs exists, however the extent of
women’s endeavors is virtually unknown due to concerns about privacy and lack of rigorous
academic research.
This report develops a sense of women entrepreneurs and their context is one of the first
to focus on women entrepreneurship in an Islamic country. Hypotheses development proceeded
by focusing on a leader within Islamic states ( Saudi Arabia), analysis of vehicles of mass culture
such as news media, and assessment of factors through personal interviews.
The findings confirm that Islamic countries are nascent cultures for women
entrepreneurs, but that they are present. Islamic women entrepreneurs attribute success and
failure in different terms than do their western counterparts, and identify a wider set of obstacles
and unique strategies to function well. This study serves as the foundation for further academic
research into the topic of women’s entrepreneurship in Islamic cultures. Given the exploratory
nature of this study, it is recommended that this research be expanded to a statistically valid base
within Saudi Arabia, and then to expand the study to additional countries.
Keywords: Entrepreneurship, Women, Islamic, Saudi Arabia
UMUC Working Paper Series – Number 2009‐002
Women Entrepreneurs in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
Table of Contents
Abstract....................................................................................................................................................2
Introduction .............................................................................................................................................4
Table 1: Ease of Doing Business in MENA Countries ....................................................................................5
Table 2: Key Facts.........................................................................................................................................6
Males versus Females in Saudi Arabia ..................................................................................................7
Females in Saudi Arabia ........................................................................................................................7
Table 3: Advantages versus Disadvantages for.............................................................................................8
Women Entrepreneurs in Saudi Arabia ........................................................................................................8
Literature Review...................................................................................................................................10
Methodology..........................................................................................................................................10
Findings ..................................................................................................................................................11
Conclusion..............................................................................................................................................12
Recommendations .................................................................................................................................12
Biography ...............................................................................................................................................13
References .............................................................................................................................................13
UMUC Working Paper Series – Number 2009‐002
Women Entrepreneurs in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
Introduction
Entrepreneurs around the world, regardless of gender, share many of the same business
problems in starting their businesses: access to financing, attracting customers, managing cash
flow, etc. In developing economies, added challenges are access to technology, underdeveloped
banking systems, and corruption. One geographic area that is evolving in terms of
entrepreneurship is the Middle East and North Africa (MENA). Mena countries, with the
exception of Israel, share a religion, the Muslim religion. The practices of the Muslim religion
can vary by country and affect everyday life and business practices. For example, Islam does not
require women to cover themselves and there are many Muslin countries where women do not
cover themselves or even their heads while in other countries women are required to be
completely covered in public. Business, albeit start up or on-going, does vary across the Middle
East as seen in Table 1. The accuracy of this information, however, is suspect. In practice, for a
women to register a business in Saudi Arabia can take a month; in Bahrain it takes an hour (Fakkar, 2007)
yet Saudi Arabia is listed as the best country to register a business. In terms of “the ease of doing
business,” the situation regarding women appears to be omitted.
Although some MENA countries are extensive economic resources due to their supply of
oil, economic development, particularly the development of small and medium sized business
has been lacking. “The phrase, ‘Arab entrepreneur’ was almost an oxymoron at the height of
state control over the region’s economies, but no more.” (Power, 2005).
UMUC Working Paper Series – Number 2009‐002
Women Entrepreneurs in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
Among the MENA countries, Saudi Arabia (Table 2) is distinguished by its rich oil
reserves and conservative religious practice. Although the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia has a
vibrant economy with modern technology, these resources are not shared by all citizens. Saudi
Arabia, with the two Moslem holy cities of Mecca and Medina, abides by conservative religious
standards. Even within Saudi Arabia, religious practice varies. Riyadh, the capital, is very strict
while Jeddah, a Red Sea seaport city, is less rigid as are some of the eastern provinces.
Table 1: Ease of Doing Business in MENA Countries
Country Ease of
Doing
Business
Starting
a
Business
Registering
Property
Getting
Credit
Saudi Arabia 1 2 1 2
Israel* 2 1 16 1
Kuwait 3 8 7 4
Oman 4 7 3 8
United Arab Emirates 5 12 2 10
Jordan 6 11 12 7
Lebanon 7 10 9 2
Tunisia 8 5 6 8
Yemen 9 17 5 16
West Bank and Gaza 10 15 13 4
Algeria 11 9 17 10
Egypt 12 4 10 10
Morocco 13 3 11 13
Iran 14 6 15 4
Syria 15 16 8 16
Iraq 16 13 4 13
Djibouti 17 14 14 13
*Israel is not an Arab country and generally does not trade with its
neighbors.
Source: Adapted from the Doing Business Project,
http://www.doingbusiness.org/economyrankings/?regionid=4
UMUC Working Paper Series – Number 2009‐002
Women Entrepreneurs in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
Table 2: Key Facts for
Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
Source: CIA World Factbook
Total Populations: 27,601,038
Nationals: 22,024962
Non-nationals: 5,576,076
Males: 54.5%
Females: 45.5%
Median Age: 21.4
Literacy: Total: 78.8%
Males: 84.7%
Females: 70.8% (2003 est.)
GDP per Capita (PPP) $20,700
Internet Hosts: 18,369
Users: 4.7 m
The economy of Saudi Arabia is dominated by large corporations related to oil
production and oil byproducts leaving little attention to the development of the economy. Small
and medium enterprises only contribute 28 percent of GDP but employ approximately 80% of
the work force. “They face obstacles in getting bank loans and business orders as their products
and services do not meet international standards. (Hassan, 2006). Additionally, the SMEs (Small
and Medium-sized Enterprises) “suffer from a lack of professionalism and of marketing skills;
they do not conduct feasibility studies, maintain financial records or prepare annual budgets.”
(Hassan, 2006).
The entire country of Kingdom of Saudi Arabia is in need of development in the
entrepreneurial sector if they are to move beyond its dependence on oil revenues. Michael E.
Porter(2008) includes “foster entrepreneurship and the development of SMEs” in step toward
crating competitiveness for the country of Saudi Arabia. Specific recommendations include, “a
culture of learning and innovation” and “upgrade human resources.”
UMUC Working Paper Series – Number 2009‐002
Women Entrepreneurs in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
A segment of the Saudi Arabian population that warrants special attention regarding
entrepreneurship and business development is women. Two examples which impinge their
ability to develop businesses are that women are not allowed to drive and must have a male
representative to deal directing with the government agencies. One custom which does not affect
the women’s ability to do business but presents a negative image to the world is the custom of
women being covered from head to toe in a black robe and veil. Attire is irrelevant to
entrepreneurial efforts, and media and researchers must look beyond the robes and “get beyond
the images of Saudi women as nameless, faceless entities,” (Minkus-McKenna, 2005) if they are
to be taken seriously.
Changes in terms of business development, entrepreneurism and women are occurring within
Saudi Arabia. “Slowly, tentatively, almost imperceptibly to outsiders, the kingdom is redefining
is relationship with the modern world.” (Molavi, 2006).
Males versus Females in Saudi Arabia
An examination of the Kingdom’s laws relating to female nationals reveal that women
are to date prohibited by custom to drive, open a business on their own, buy a home and invest in
real estate. Even the simplest act of reporting a crime to the local police must be done by a
women’s guardian. (Abdullah, 2007b). Freedoms for women are perceived as an “attack at the
very moral fiber of traditionalist culture and consensual departure from the way God has
intended Muslims to live.” (Seznec) On occasion, what is done privately is different versus what
is done publically.
Technically, the registration process for a new business is the same whether the
business is owned by a man or a woman. “The only regulation imposed on women owned
businesses is to have all women staff in designated women’s section with separate entry and exit
doors; and a male supervisor in the men’s section. (Parker, 2007).
According to a member of the Shoura Council, several decisions regarding the right of a
woman to register a business have changed in the last five years. “Until recently, women
couldn’t practice any commercial activity without a male agent who represents her in
administration and in dealing with the procedures for setting up a legal business in the Kingdom
(Fakkar, 2007). Some women, however, still complain that they need a male agent.
Females in Saudi Arabia
Women make up 45.5 % of the population in Saudi Arabia. This number is lower than
the United States where females make up 50.9% of the population (CIA, 2008). This variation is
the result of the approximately 5.6 million foreign workers in the Kingdom, the majority of
whom are male. Female literacy rates as 71% (CIA, 2008), however, a breakout of literacy by
age is not available. Today, education is mandatory for females and women make up 58% of
University students. (Ba-lsa, 2007). More and more women are employed but the estimates range
from 5.5% (Parker, 2007) to 15% (Abdullah,2007a).
Other key facts regarding women’s business potential in Saudi Arabia are:
UMUC Working Paper Series – Number 2009‐002
Women Entrepreneurs in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
• Women control much of wealth in the country and thus women entrepreneurs
have access to informal funding. Saudi women as a whole own estimated cash
funds of SR45 billion, of which “75% is sitting idle in bank deposits.” (Parker,
2007).
• Women own about four percent of the total registered businesses in the Kingdom
with 5,500 commercial registrations of women’s projects, representing 20% of the
business in the retail, contracting, wholesale and transferable industries sectors
(Parker, 2007). Arab News published Top 20 List of Saudi Women’s Business in
March 2007. “Saudi men have traditionally been the entrepreneurs but our women
are no longer standing in the shadows. They have stepped into the light and have
become the backbone of society. We in the Kingdom are fortunate to have well-educated,
financially powerful women (Almaeena, 2007).
• Some Saudi women participate in entrepreneurial efforts through their families.
Women own some 40% of family run companies, very often as silent partners
(Parker, 2007).
• Not all Saudi men are against women working or owning businesses. Some
women entrepreneurs receive support psychological support and business advice
from their husbands and fathers.
In assessing the situation, there are both advantages and disadvantages to being a female
and attempting to start a business in Saudi Arabia (Table 3).
Table 3: Advantages versus Disadvantages for
Women Entrepreneurs in Saudi Arabia
Advantages Disadvantages
Highly educated
New generation of women and values
Economic growth
Separate banks
Need male permission
Separate banks
Minimal government assistance
Lack of support from other women
Lack of business experience
Lack of market research
UMUC Working Paper Series – Number 2009‐002
Women Entrepreneurs in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
Advantages
• The female population is highly educated with 58% of university students being
women.
• The population of Saudis is very young and these men and women have grown up with
increased access to the internet. A new generation of Saudi women has grown up in an
era of socio-economic reforms in where the contribution of women is being
increasingly acknowledged (Parker, 2007).
• Unlike many countries, economic resources are extensive and rapidly growing.
• Having separate banks for men and women can be considered as both an advantage
and disadvantage. [Women can go into any bank but the “the idea of bank branches
for women came about as a way to attract women customers that might prefer services
catering to them specifically.” (Adbullah, 2007a).] Special problems and issues of
women can receive full attention in separate banks; however, financial advice in
establishing businesses is presently unavailable.
Disadvantages
The disadvantages specific to Saudi Arabia are that male permission is needed to register
a business in their name, or travel alone, that women cannot drive and that government support is
minimal at best.
• One woman succinctly summarized the business implications of needing male
permission. “For me, first of all the guardianship issue must be solved. In
practicality, a woman’s husband or father is the owner of all her finances and
controls her business. In a family, if the husband dies, the guardianship of the
woman passes to another man and then what happens to the woman’s business? “
• Not being able to drive is an inconvenience and requires the added expense of a
driver.
• The Saudi government has initiated only a limited number of programs targeted to
women’s development. One example, “The Saudi Woman Between Economics
and Social Reality,” a conference targeting businesswomen, working women and
women seeking to develop a business occurred in 2008 and featured several
Princes as speakers and supporters of women’s involvement.
• “One of the biggest issue facing women in business in Saudi Arabia – the lack of
support from other women (Ba-lsa, 2007). Although the culture of Saudi Arabia is
characterized by privacy, it is best not to incur the attention or wrath of The
Commission for Promotion of Virtue and Prevention of Vice, also known as the
religious police.
UMUC Working Paper Series – Number 2009‐002
Women Entrepreneurs in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
• Because the vast majority of women do not work outside the home, they lack
business experience and exposure vital skills that would contribute to establishing
their own business.
• Lack of market research (See literature review below.).
Literature Review
For a comprehensive view of literature, both current and academic literature was reviewed.
In both cases, limited information can be found as it is difficult to conduct studies in Saudi
Arabia and supporting statistical data from the government is either lacking or conflicting. This
is compounded by a “the fetish for secrecy” (Atkinson, 2007) that permeates business and
society in Saudi Arabia. Gathering information from women throughout the MENA is
particularly difficult due to cultural constraints (Atkinson, 2007) and many women do not
register their businesses because they cannot do so officially and many women operate their
business outside the public eye. (Abdullah, 2007a).
When a survey of women owned businesses was conducted by ARAB NEWS, the results
suffered from half filled out forms, incorrect information, and a lack of cooperation. At times,
the researchers had to make personal calls to business owners to plead to get the forms filled out.
(Almaeena, 2007).
In terms of academic literature, there is virtually none that addresses Saudi Arabia. Of the
two academic articles, one (Riddle, 2007) deals with the MENA countries and concludes that the
MENA countries do not think alike, and within countries, younger mangers thought differently
than older counterparts. The other article, Toward an Understanding of Arab Entrepreneurs in
Bahrain and Oman (Dechant & Lamky, 2005), was used as the basis of this study so that cross
cultural comparison can be made in the future.
Methodology
The sample, because of its small base and secretive nature, was done by personal
reference.
The open-ended questions originally derived from those used in a 1998 poll of women
entrepreneurs in the United States conducted by the NFWBO (National Federation of Women
Business Owners) and Catalyst. The questions were modified by Dechant and Lamky to fit the
business environment in Bahrain and Oman. By using the same questions in this study, the basis
for comparison of MENA country results is possible.
Among the question asked were:
1. Why did you start your own business?
2. Who are your customers?
3. How did you finance your start-up?
4. By what means do you promote your business?
5. How significant is the Internet to your business?
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Women Entrepreneurs in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
6. How do you ensure the quality of your products/services?
7. What sources do you rely upon for advice regarding the management of your
business?
8. How would you describe your leadership style?
9. What has been the impact of your country’s culture on your doing business?
10. How has Islam affected your experience as a business woman?
The respondents were identified through referrals from Saudi Arabian women and
students who were asked to help locate local women who were operating their own businesses.
The identity of the women entrepreneurs has been camouflaged to protect them. For
presentation, the question/answer format rather than a case study format was used to further
disguise their identities.
Findings
In terms of personal characteristics, all the women were married with children and
operated service businesses. Their businesses were either sole proprietorships or employed from
one to 16 people. The oldest business was 10 years old and the youngest was 4 years old. All the
women were college educated. The businesses included spas and beauty salons, a computer
graphic and repair shop, public relations, event planning and marketing consultants. It must be
emphasized again that this is preliminary research and evaluated in that light.
1. Why did you start your business? The reasons for starting a business varied: Need, For
the sake of my children, Spend more time with the children and Do something they
loved
Wyoming Valley: An American saga
No full textAbstract: This study examines a region of Northeast Pennsylvania and traces the ideological, sociological, and technological evolution that it has undergone from prehistoric times to the early part of this twentieth-first century. It is historical in approach and studies the changes that the region has undergone in four major time periods: The Native American Eras, the Colonial and Early National Period; the Age of Coal; and the Post-Industrial Period. It finds that the area reflects closely the changes of the country as it has moved successively from a subsistence rural agrarian culturally homogenous locality to an increasingly urban industrialized religiously and ethnically diverse locale to a community struggling to meet the changes that other American communities in the Northeast and Middle West must meet in a post-industrial changing American landscape characterized by changing residential, commercial, and demographic patterns. As such, it mirrors where we have been, where we are, and where we may be going in a shifting ideological, sociological, and technological set of circumstances. It is a retrospective study, a snapshot of the present, and a possible blueprint for the future.UMUC Working Paper Series – Number 2009-017
WYOMING VALLEY: AN AMERICAN SAGA
By
Norman C. Rothman, Ph.D.
Department of History, UMUC
June, 2009
UMUC Working Paper Series – Number 2009-017
Abstract
This study examines a region of Northeast Pennsylvania and traces the ideological,
sociological, and technological evolution that it has undergone from prehistoric times to
the early part of this twentieth-first century. It is historical in approach and studies the
changes that the region has undergone in four major time periods: The Native American
Eras, the Colonial and Early National Period; the Age of Coal; and the Post-Industrial
Period. It finds that the area reflects closely the changes of the country as it has moved
successively from a subsistence rural agrarian culturally homogenous locality to an
increasingly urban industrialized religiously and ethnically diverse locale to a community
struggling to meet the changes that other American communities in the Northeast and
Middle West must meet in a post-industrial changing American landscape characterized
by changing residential, commercial, and demographic patterns. As such, it mirrors
where we have been, where we are, and where we may be going in a shifting ideological,
sociological, and technological set of circumstances. It is a retrospective study, a
snapshot of the present, and a possible blueprint for the future.
Keywords:
Wyoming Valley
Delaware
Pennamite
Anthracite
United Mine Workers
Pennsylvania Industrial Assistance Corporation
UMUC Working Paper Series – Number 2009-017
Wyoming Valley: An American Saga
Introduction: Historical Overview
Historically, the region described in the following section mirrors the experience
of the country. The historical phases of human habitation reflect the history of our
country. The original Native American settlers of the dominant Algonquin and Iroquois
groups in the fertile Wyoming Valley was typical of the type of settled village culture
prevalent in much of pre-Columbian America east of the Mississippi Rive in terms of
house types (long houses, wooden and thatched roofs with deerskins), crops (beans,
maize, tobacco), leadership patterns (headship, councils); and means of exchange (beads,
wampum); and hunting, fishing and mining patterns (see historical epochs). The colonial
period also typified patterns of colonial settlement with Valley being a scene of
contention between settlers from Pennsylvania and Connecticut with ethnic groups,
dialects, housing types, and religions being representative of the middle colonies and
northern colonies respectively. The food crops grown and the agrarian lifestyle mirrored
colonial America.(see below). The early national period also reflected national patterns as
macadamized roads based on long established paths was followed by canals and then by
railroads in the era of internal improvements. The increasingly urban and industrialized
nature of the country founds its local counterpart in the rise of anthracite coal which the
region supplied to the country during the heyday of this fossil fuel between the mid-nineteenth
century and 1920. The arrival of immigrants attracted by the coal fields
reflected the changing demographic nature of the country as immigrants from western
and northern Europe were replaced by immigrants from southern and eastern Europe
who brought with them various elements of culture especially language and religion (the
historical section examines this development in detail). The slow decline since then is
emblematic of many areas in the Northeast and Midwest as regions cope with the post-industrial
age (examined below).
Introduction: the Setting and Basic Themes.
This study traces the sociological, ideological, and technological changes over the
past millennia in a region of Northeastern Pennsylvania. Wyoming Valley is the
population center of Luzerne County – a county which occupies 892 square miles and has
just over 310,000 people according to the most recent census. It is physically divided
into three major areas—the Allegheny Plateau, the Appalachian Ridge, and the Valley
Region. The Susquehanna River bisects the county. Culturally, there have been six
regions in the county: The Back Mountain region; Wyoming Valley; the Western
Poconos; Mountaintop; the Hazleton area (the county’s second city located in the extreme
southeast and its hinterland); and the Northwest Highlands and Susquehanna Valley.1
Each of these regions has a distinct heritage. The Back Mountain area of Luzerne
County is located in the Northeastern part of the county, and includes a somewhat
prosperous farming community and the Harvey’s Lake resort area. The low plateau area
north and northeast of the central community of Dallas is still the site for dairy farms and
UMUC Working Paper Series – Number 2009-017
Wyoming Valley: An American Saga
fruit orchards. The majority of people are of Yankee descent since the initial settlers to
the area came from New England. The predominant religion is Methodism, and the
residents tend to be Republican. One could view this area as a cross section of
conservative American rural values. Today, it is the fastest growing area in Luzerne
County (which has shown an overall population decline in recent decades). It could be
characterized as a “yuppie” area as significant numbers of affluent educated professionals
have moved to the community, which has also experienced a natural upsurge of new
businesses. The negative side of this development has been the rise in taxes and
overextension of community services. Perhaps inevitably, increased tension is evident
between the new suburbanites and older rural residents. Ironically, the relative
prosperity has helped to bridge any residual resentment felt by the original inhabitants.2
Two other regions of the county have experienced an economic upsurge since
World War II. The first area, the western Pocono region in the southeast of the county,
has shared in the general growth of the Poconos (the only section of Pennsylvania that
has seen consistent population growth over the past half of the 20th century). Along with
the eastern Poconos in adjacent Pike and Monroe counties, it has become a bedroom
community for people who have high paying jobs in New York City and New Jersey and
commute daily. Similar situations exist in Harper’s Ferry, West Virginia and in
Manchester, New Hampshire, where the relatively low cost of living and taxes have made
these communities popular destinations for workers in Washington, D.C. and Boston,
Massachusetts, respectively. These areas have become attractive residential areas for
those who want a combination of high salaries and affordable living costs. As in other
parts of the Poconos, vacation homes and recreational facilities for honeymooners and
tourists abound. This current condition is quite a contrast to the traditional role of this
area as a somewhat isolated highland region settled by both English and German speakers
by 1800. Before World War II, this region was a mixed area of timber production, coal
mining, and hillside farming.
To the west of this region is another area of growth – Mountaintop. This area of
high rolling hills and valleys was an area of small population inhabited by German
Protestants mostly from southeastern Pennsylvania until World War II. The subsequent
completion of the highway system (Interstates 80 and 81) and the development of
Crestwood Industrial Park caused a marked positive transformation in this area The
resulting rise in suburban housing and high tech industries which developed around the
central community of Mountaintop had an even great impact than that experienced in the
Back Mountain area.3
The other areas of the county did not experience the socio-economic change
experienced by the aforementioned areas. The Northwest Highlands and Susquehanna
Valley region in western Luzerne County remained separate from the anthracite coal
culture which dominated the county between 1825 and 1950. It continues to be a
sparsely-populated region of farmers, loggers, and hunters, small towns, and rural life
reminiscent of 18th and 19th century America. However, this area has also experienced
inevitable change. Large-scale dairy farms have expanded, and the highland sections are
now seasonably visited by both vacationers and sportsmen. The river valley section of
UMUC Working Paper Series – Number 2009-017
Wyoming Valley: An American Saga
this region is part of the Susquehanna River watershed and has seen its economy expand
following the construction of the Susquehanna nuclear power plant by Pennsylvania
Power & Light Co.4
The previously discussed sub-regions have never contained more than 30 percent
of the population (although their population share has grown from a very small base).
The dominant regions are the Hazleton area and Wyoming Valley. Both regions have
waxed and waned with the coal culture that, in turn, has led to a wide variety of economic
classes and ethnic groups which will be discussed in great length later in this chapter.
Hazleton, the second city of the county, is located over 25 miles from central city Wilkes-
Barre at the highest summit in the state. It is separated from the Allegheny Plateau
section of the county (the site of Wilkes-Barre) by the Appalachian Ridge. This natural
geographic division has created a sense of separation from the rest of the county and a
greater sense of identification with the anthracite region in the southern portion of the
county. As a result, there have been attempts over the years to form a new county of
which Hazleton would be the center, just as Scranton became the nucleus of Lackawanna
County when it was separated from Luzerne County in the 19th century. Many
communities in the Hazleton area began their existence as “coal patch” or company
towns. This was an area of great industrial unrest from the age of the Molly Maguires
(immigrant coal miners who resisted the coal mine owners in the 19th century) to the
period of John L. Lewis and the great strikes of the United Mine Workers Union between
1902 and 1936. After World War II, the Hazleton area decline was partly offset by an
economic revitalization program called Can-Do which attracted new industries especially
around the Valmont and Humboldt industrial parks located near Interstates 80 and 81.
The city has been in the news recently over a large-scale Hispanic immigration which
became a national controversy concerning the right of a local authority to expel elements
of a population in terms of challenges to legal citizen status.5
The population center of the county (and the focus of this study) has always been
the Wyoming Valley that has had (even when in decline) the bulk of the population, as
well as the most cultural and economic activities. Located in the central to northern
sections of the county, it extends 17 miles from north of Pittston to south of Nanticoke.
Horizontally, it extends three to six miles on either side of the Susquehanna River.6
Historically, and currently, the economic and cultural hub is the city of Wilkes-Barre;
however, the bulk of the population of the Valley’s approximately 200,000 people reside
in small to medium towns. These towns were first dominated by farming, and then by
coal mining between the founding of the county in 1786 and World War II.7 It
epitomizes the American pattern of European encroachment on Native Americans, rural
and agricultural America, industrialization, immigration, economic boom and bust, and
cultural and ethnic diversity so characteristic of our national fabric.
UMUC Working Paper Series – Number 2009-017
Wyoming Valley: An American Saga
HISTORICAL EPOCHS
Native American Era
The historical timeframe of the Native American era can be divided into five
periods: 1) the paleo-Indian Period, 2) the Archaic period, 3) the Traditional Period, 4)
the Woodland Period, and 5) the Historical Period. As elsewhere, nomadic hunters
existed in Wyoming Valley as the glaciers of the Ice Age began to retreat. There is
evidence of the mammoth and mastodon and the use of high quality flint implements
placed on pointed spears in the Wyoming Valley. During this period, which lasted from
10,000 to 8,000 B.C.E, nomads hunted large bear and wolf that also appeared at this
time.8
The final retreat of the glaciers occurred between 8000 and 7000 B.C.E. New
forms of animal and plant life that accompanied ecological changes appeared in the
Wyoming Valley. This Archaic Period (7000 to 1000 B.C.E) witnessed fir and spruce
trees give way dense deciduous forests of oak, hickory, birch, and chestnut. The products
of these forests--acorns, hickory nut, and chestnuts (as well as other nuts and berries)--
became the staple diet of local residents. New species of animals such as the white-tailed
deer, elk, turkey, and the small bear also appeared. Rivers began to flow and rise as the
temperature increased, and the dominant waterway of the Northeast, the Susquehanna
River, flowed into the newly-formed Chesapeake Bay. Water brought fish such as shad
and roe.9 The present Wyoming Valley was formed by the Susquehanna River flowing
through the outcroppings of the Allegheny Mountain range. The flow of the main branch
of the Susquehanna River and its Lackawanna River tributary along with surrounding
mountain ranges made the Wyoming Valley attractive in terms of both soil fertility and
strategic location. The Iroquois and Algonquin, British and French, and the Pennsylvania
and Connecticut Yankees were soon to vie for the attributes of region.
The availability of new food sources encouraged a wider variety of tools such as
fish nets weighted with notched flat river stones, axes, gouges, chisels, and adzes. By the
end of the period, hunters and gatherers were using implements made of stone, bone,
wood, antler, and chestnut. Copper was also used as it could be hammered into a wide
variety of shapes such as crescent-shaped knives, socketed axes, and both square and
rounded gouges.10 The use of copper is evidence that there was some degree of long
distance trade with the population of the Lake Superior region or what is today Minnesota
and Wisconsin.
The increasingly temperate climate also encouraged sociological change.
Inhabitants gathered in larger encampments and became semi-nomadic as they migrated
in and around the Valley to summer fishing camps and winter hunting camps. The
residents did not yet grow corn or maize, but they used tools such as stone mullets and
pestles to grind dry acorns and hickory and to store this foot in pits—indicating a move
away from a totally nomadic existence.11
UMUC Working Paper Series – Number 2009-017
Wyoming Valley: An American Saga
The aforementioned trends intensified during the Traditional Period (1000 B.C.E
to 1000 C.E.). Hunting and fishing tools became even more pointed using available
minerals such as rhyolite and soapstone; these minerals were also used to make cooking
vessels. Animals such as deer and bear were used for clothing, food, and shelter--further
evidence that residents were making increasing use of the environment. The creation and
use of clay vessels for storage demonstrated increasing sophistication. Horticulture began
and the use of the bow and arrow became quite common.12
The Woodland Period (1000-1575) saw the arrival of sedentary agriculture
characterized by the cultivation of corn. Corn became a primary staple in the diet of
inhabitants whether as solid food or fermented in liquid form. Villages had designated
areas for cooking, weaving, smoking fish, and tanning hides. Using pottery for cooking
and storage became quite common. Other changes in terms of building were prompted by
the Valley’s many perceived advantages. The Wyoming Valley experienced conflict
because of its location, fertile soil, and plentiful fur-bearing animals. Villages had to be
fortified by using long logs or palisades. The inner walls or stockades were created with
logs that were 3-8 inches in diameter and 12-15 feet height that were imbedded 8-19
inches into the ground. These stockades protected the houses, cooking areas, cornfields
and gardens. The outer walls were the palisades that could extend 270 feet east and west
and 210 feet north and south.13
The early inhabitants of the Wyoming Valley have been identified with the
Susquehannocks—a people related to the Iroquois—who had disappeared by 1575. A
number of reasons could have led to their disappearance. The Iroquois Confederation
was formed about this time, and this group may have lost out in a power struggle. Slash
and burn agriculture was practiced, and the soil may have become temporarily exhausted.
The period between 1000 and 1400 is often called the “little ice age” due to cooling
temperatures; this change may have adversely affected living conditions by shortening
the growing season. Epidemics of smallpox and typhus introduced by European
explorers for which Native Americans had little immunity may also have served to
decimate the population. The period of 1575 to 1675 also saw the “beaver wars,” a
struggle among various Native Americans to control the valuable fur trade initiated by
the French explorers and traders.14
The Historic Period (1675 to 1775) experienced a great influx of Native
Americans who pursued a settled existence. The fertile Wyoming Valley located along
the North Branch of the Susquehanna River tempted the Iroquois who were located in
adjacent upstate New York. Although the Iroquois were the most powerful Native
American confederation in North America at the time, this union of six Native American
groups (Onadega, Cayuga, Mohawk, Oneida, and later the Tuscorora) lacked the
population to settle Wyoming Valley. Instead, they encouraged other groups (even if
they were from the rival Algonquin culture) to locate there. Therefore, various groups
that had been displaced in part by the fur conflicts and in part by the onrush of Native
American settlers, such as the Shawnees, Lenni Lenape (later known as Delaware),
Mohicans, Mohegans, Tuscorora, and Nanticokes, all settled in the Wyoming Valley.
The Shawnee were prominent in the western part of the Valley, while the Delaware were
UMUC Working Paper Series – Number 2009-017
Wyoming Valley: An American Saga
prominent in the eastern part. It was the Delaware who gave the name to the area,
“Maugh-wau-wame”, meaning large plains that later became known as Wyoming. The
Iroquois called the valley their longhouse or “entrance.”15
The Shawnee--partially influenced by their Iroquoian Susquehannock
predecessors --lived in fortified villages and were ruled by a chief. At the center was a
longhouse (30 to100+ feet) with a door at each end of a corridor down the middle and
bunks at each side. Each family lived around a hearth with a smoke hold above it in the
corridor. Several families would live in the corridor separated by partitions. There were
several longhouses in each village.16
The Delaware, who came to dominate a large portion of the Wyoming Valley by
1700, adopted much of the moccasin and deerskin clothing worn by other Northeast
Native Americans. Their major food was corn and other grains supplement by fish,
animals and plants. Unlike the settlements of the Iroquois, the Delaware encampments
were open. They often consisted of half a dozen or more houses in cloistered or
connected houses or in separate detached arrangements. The Delaware looked for three
elements in their settlements—a good water supply, good drainage, and warmth for the
winter. They were seasonably migrant, and lived in cabins for hunting near the village
between October and April. In the spring they would fish and collect nuts and berries.
They would hunt fox, beaver, and raccoons. They would tap the trees for sap during the
spring. They would grow corn between April and October. When the soil became
depleted from growing corn and using the trees for firewood, the Delaware would re-fertilize
the soil with fish scraps. The roofs of both the village and cabins were arched.
The habitations would be at least five feet high to provide wind resistance. Vertical poles
were pounded into the ground and bound together by horizontal poles where they covered
by long pieces of bark and held in place by strips derived from the linden tree or hickory
twigs. Light poles crisscrossed on the outside to hold the bark together. The buildings
were 30 to 100 feet in length and 20 to 25 feet wide. By the 18th century, the Delaware
had developed small and rectangular log houses with moss or earthen roofs and bark on
the outside. They would get hot water by pouring water on
Addressing Surface-Feature Errors_ Strategies for Faculty and Students - DE Oracle
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An Online Learning Magazine for UMUC Faculty
Center for Support of Instruction
Addressing Surface-Feature Errors: Strategies for Faculty and Students
David Ramsey
Assistant Professor, English
UMUC Asian Division
Published: January-February 2009
Category: » Online-pedagogy » Teaching-strategies
(Note: This article is the second of a two-part series; the first, Application of Psychology Concepts to
the Teaching of Writing Across Disciplines: Reinforcement and Shaping, appeared in the DE Oracle in
November-December 2008.)
Beginning with Assumptions
The primary assumption underlying this article is that regard for "surface-feature matters" (elements of
a composition which either help or hinder the conveyance of content) is relevant for writing in every
course, for every discipline. To paraphrase one of my mentors in graduate school, Dr. Edward White, a
writer can have absolutely ingenious thoughts, but if these thoughts are not conveyed to a reader
clearly via surface-feature matters, the objective of the composition will not be realized. Thus,
employing several strategies regarding surface-feature matters, as determined through the field of
composition and rhetoric and my own teaching of these matters, will likely be quite useful. These
strategies are: 1) envisioning surface-feature errors as "patterns of error" (POE's) rather than as
discrete and separate entities; 2) presenting a lecture which addresses common patterns of error in the
instructor’s discipline/course; 3) providing written feedback on students' compositions that helps them
recognize and edit their personal POE's; and 4) encouraging students to employ surface-feature
information/knowledge in specific ways.
Perceptions of Surface-Feature Errors
Historically, determining the frequency of particular types of surface-feature errors in students' writing
is nothing new; for example, in their article, "Frequency of Formal Errors," Robert Connors and Andrea
Lunsford discuss a large-scale research endeavor conducted in 1938–39. However, there is evidence,
anecdotal and otherwise, of instructors—regardless of discipline—assessing surface-feature matters as
discrete entities, perhaps deducting a point for every comma splice and/or refusing to continue
assessing a composition after a certain number of errors. Therefore, it is important, both for the
instructor and his or her students, to envision surface-feature errors in relation to their patterns. For
example, eight instances of the lack of a comma after introductory phrases are not eight separate
errors; rather, they are eight manifestations of a student not understanding that a comma follows an
introductory phrase. To be clear, such errors are likely occurring because the student correctly
understands the need to compose complex sentence structures in the academic environment to reflect
complex thought; however, the student does not have the accompanying grammatical knowledge for
these complex sentence structures. In this way, the student exists in an intermediate stage of
producing appropriate academic discourse (Bartholomae, 1980). As students understand their patterns
of error and the grammatical knowledge regarding these structures, they can begin to edit their own
compositions.
Once instructors understand the relevance and usefulness of the POE strategy, it is important to convey
this knowledge to their students. Because UMUC primarily serves non-traditional, older students, they
Addressing Surface-Feature Errors: Strategies for Faculty and Students - DE Oracle
may very well have not heard of this concept. However, in my experience, UMUC students
overwhelmingly receive the POE concept in positive ways, as it makes sense to them.
Instruction Concerning Surface-Feature Errors
After offering the POE idea to students, the next element is preparing a lecture that focuses on
discipline- or course-specific patterns; as Margo Coleman offers in her article, "Application of
Psychology Concepts to the Teaching of Writing Across Disciplines: Reinforcement and Shaping," an
instructor's expectations—and, thus, patterns to be focused upon in such a lecture—may vary between
levels and types of courses.
For example, I inform my students that the following five POE's comprise roughly 80-85% of the
surface-feature errors I find in UMUC undergraduate courses: 1) lack of commas after introductory
phrases, 2) lack of commas for inserted clauses, 3) commas for coordinating conjunctions, 4) proper
semicolon use, and 5) qualifying generalizations/evidence for assertions. Therefore, I offer a lecture
focusing on these patterns in all of my college-level English courses during the beginning weeks. For
each of the patterns, I offer a "layperson" definition and several examples; I then ask the students to
derive an example or, ideally, to consider a previously written sample of their writing for such
structures/errors. I also refer students to other resources, such as The Little, Brown Handbook, the
current handbook for WRTG 101, and UMUC's online writing center.
Feedback to Students Regarding Surface-Feature Errors
The final element in helping students reduce their surface-feature errors is to provide written feedback
on their compositions. As the hardest part for any writer is to transfer lectures and other acontextual
knowledge to their own compositions, I edit, in their entirety, the first pages of my students' essays; I
then start to determine, on a separate piece of paper, POE's occurring in the compositions, and I offer
this information as the final element of my "terminal comments" (the global assessments occurring at
the end of the papers). Such feedback is intended to serve two purposes: allow students to see
particular errors within the contexts of their own writing and allow them the knowledge and opportunity
to edit their own compositions. Clearly, if I were to correct all of my students' POE's for them, they
would have little, if any, incentive to determine these errors themselves. Coleman's assertions are
again useful here, in reference to the benefits of allowing students numerous opportunities, in the form
of multiple compositions, to apply the "shaping" information provided by the instructor.
Student Implementation of Knowledge
When I offer the lecture concerning POE's to my students, I recommend that they go over their
documents several times, each time focusing on one of these pervasive patterns of error; after
students review the feedback on their first paper in the aforementioned ways, they are then advised to
focus on concerns more specific to their writing. As I explain to my students, two things will likely
happen if they attempt to edit their documents once, addressing multiple POE's: 1), they will likely feel
overwhelmed by considering numerous types of errors, and 2) they will end up overlooking or not
recognizing many of the errors that they otherwise determine. Consequently, I advise the students to
consider the entirety of their compositions several times, focusing on one pattern each time. While such
a method requires more time, it is decidedly more productive in relation to editing one’s composition.
Moreover, I remind my students that surface-feature matters are worth 40% of the overall assessment,
so such time is definitely well-spent.
In Sum
The ability to produce effective texts via surface-feature matters is necessary for all writers, regardless
of discipline; faculty members are doing their students a disservice if they do not assist them in this
regard. The strategies I have detailed in this article are designed to address such matters throughout a
Addressing Surface-Feature Errors: Strategies for Faculty and Students - DE Oracle
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course, in ways that are productive and not overly time-consuming for either the instructor or his or
her students.
References
Bartholomae, D. (1980). The study of error. College Composition and Communication, 31 (3), 253-269.
Retrieved December 10, 2008, from JSTR database.
Coleman, M. (2008). Application of psychology concepts to the teaching of writing across disciplines:
Reinforcement and shaping. DE Oracle. Retrieved December 5, 2008, from http://deoracle.org
/online-pedagogy/teaching-strategies/application-of-psychology-concepts.html
Connors, R., & Lunsford, A. (1988). Frequency of formal errors in current college writing, or ma and pa
kettle do research. College Composition and Communication, 39 (4), 395-409. Retrieved December 12,
2008, from JSTR database.
About the Author(s)
David Ramsey is at the final stage of acquiring his PhD in English from Miami University of Ohio and will defend his
dissertation--a discourse analysis determining the levels and types of interaction occurring in UMUC's undergraduate distance
education courses--in January 2009. He received both his BA (in English literature) and MA (in English composition) from
California State University, San Bernardino.
Since 2003, David has taught various undergraduate English courses for UMUC's Asian Division, in both on-site and distance-education
formats. He previously taught for several other institutions, including aboard a U.S. Navy ship (an LHD) for Central
Texas College.
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PowerPoint, Animated Avatars, and Going Green_ Team Teaching Multimedia - DE Oracle
No full textDE Oracle @ UMUC
An Online Learning Magazine for UMUC Faculty
Center for Support of Instruction
PowerPoint, Animated Avatars, and Going Green: Team Teaching
Multimedia
David Taylor
Senior Advisor EWC
School of Undergraduate Studies
Published: September-October 2009
Category: » Online-pedagogy » Teaching-strategies
Taught by Dr. Sabrina Fu, Individuals,
Society and Environmental Sustainability
(BEHS 3980) guides students through a
multidisciplinary study of how humans can
change their daily behavior to survive on a
planet with dwindling resources.
Because of the course's emphasis on
individual awareness and responsibility, Dr.
Fu wanted Summer 2009 students to work
together to create multimedia presentations
to help others understand the
environmental challenges we face as a
species.
Dr. Fu contacted UMUC’s Effective Writing
Center (EWC) to arrange a multi-part guest
lecture to guide students in the creation of
their presentations. If selected, the students’ presentations would be added to UMUC's student Web
site (http://www.umuc.edu/gogreen) , which is funded by a grant from the National Science Foundation and
provides the UMUC community with information and resources for environmental sustainability.
During the fifth week of the course, the EWC conducted a conference with threads
(http://www.peakwriting.com/EWC/BEHS/C5/home.html) on "new literacy" techniques, including information
mapping and basic principles of document design. As a follow-up activity, students were provided
with video instruction on the use of Microsoft Word and PowerPoint to design a "lorem ipsum" (dummy
copy) draft of their projects. Students submitted their designs and were given individualized video
feedback via videos on YouTube. Examples of feedback:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AVBjIqKd6Ic (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AVBjIqKd6Ic)
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mXZTzBBMacU (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mXZTzBBMacU)
During Week Six, students' individual needs for PowerPoint instruction were assessed based on their
submitted work. The assessment provided the basis for a series of PowerPoint instructional videos that
focused on techniques such as custom motion paths and photo manipulation. This video series is now
part of the EWC’s multimedia library:
Introduction to Animation (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AnJpZ8zYWdU) (http://www.youtube.com
/watch?v=AnJpZ8zYWdU) (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AnJpZ8zYWdU)
Grid Lines, Drawing Lines, Photo Formating (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4iFmBmQrkAQ)
PowerPoint, Animated Avatars, and Going Green: Team Teaching Multimedia - DE Oracle
Motion Paths (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=P9ftw1rHLk8) (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=P9ftw1rHLk8)
Slide Headers (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Mlof7dYJunI) (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Mlof7dYJunI)
Sequence & Process Animations (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=08rTryT4g1U)
During Week Seven, the class of 21 students was divided into four groups and tasked with creating a
PowerPoint presentation for publication on UMUC's student Web site (http://www.umuc.edu/gogreen)
(http://www.umuc.edu/gogreen) . Threads (http://www.peakwriting.com/EWC/BEHS/C7/home.html) for this
conference included topics such as storyboarding, avatars, audio files, and advanced PowerPoint
techniques. Throughout the group project week, student groups were monitored and their questions
and technical needs responded to daily in the group area. FAQs (http://www.peakwriting.com/EWC/BEHS
/faq.html) from all groups were posted in a common area so that groups could benefit from each other’s
questions and progress.
Each group was outstanding. The students quickly delegated the many sub-tasks required to produce
this project:
Outline and storyboard content.
Design a PowerPoint template for welcome slide and content slides.
Research the topic and document sources.
Write a presentation script and record it.
Build and animate the PowerPoint slides.
Edit and proofread for public presentation.
All four group projects were turned in by the deadline. For each project, an animated avatar (chosen by
the group) was created to serve as the spokesperson for each presentation and then for a video
produced of each presentation. Here are the four group projects in video format with avatars:
Landfill Waste, the 3Rs and Sustainability (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WOrmHurKV4E)
E-Waste (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DUil39GYkNg)
Unsustainable Trendy Fashions (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7CCl0dytW0E)
What is Your Environmental Footprint? (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VJfzkL05Rmg)
(http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VJfzkL05Rmg)
For their final project in the course, students were allowed to choose between writing a traditional
research paper or creating a PowerPoint presentation using the skills they were taught and practiced
during the group project.
Student feedback from the course indicated that integration of multimedia into the course and creative
assignments made for an outstanding learning experience.
About the Author(s)
David Taylor is the Senior Writing Advisor in UMUC's Effective Writing Center.
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Watchtower to Kitawala: A case of religious synthesis
No full textAbstract: Religious syncretism is the attempt to combine old beliefs with new beliefs to establish a psychological equilibrium wherein the convert interprets his or her social-cultural world through additional filters. This process has been especially widespread when colonized people adapt new, often imposed, beliefs to changing circumstance. It helps them make sense of their changing world. The development of syncretic movements has been especially prevalent in Africa. This paper traces the evolution of one such group, the Kitawala, from its external Watchtower origins to its current indigenous incarnation. It finds that in spite of opposition from secular authorities, the Kitawala movement has survived through both the colonial period and post-colonial period as a distinct movement in southern and central Africa because it has addressed the ordinary spiritual and material concerns of people in these regions. It has developed its own identity as an authentic belief system as it has evolved over the past century. Keywords: Watchtower, Kitawala, Jehovah’s Witnesses, Chilembwe, Kanwana, Booth, millennial, syncretism.UMUC Working Paper Series – Fall Semester
. UMUC Working Paper Series – Fall Semester 2009
Watchtower to Kitawala: A Case of Religious Synthesis
By
Norman C. Rothman
UMUC, Department of History
University of Maryland University College
UMUC WP 2009 Norman Rothman
Watchtower to Kitawala: A Case of Religious Synthesis
By
Norman C. Rothman
[email protected] UMUC Working Paper Series – Fall Semester
Watchtower to Kitawala: A Case of Religious Synthesis
Norman C. Rothman
Department of History
University of Maryland University College
Fall 2009
UMUC Working Paper Series – Fall Semester
Abstract
Religious syncretism is the attempt to combine old beliefs with new beliefs to establish a psychological equilibrium wherein the convert interprets his or her social-cultural world through additional filters. This process has been especially widespread when colonized people adapt new, often imposed, beliefs to changing circumstance. It helps them make sense of their changing world. The development of syncretic movements has been especially prevalent in Africa.
This paper traces the evolution of one such group, the Kitawala, from its external Watchtower origins to its current indigenous incarnation. It finds that in spite of opposition from secular authorities, the Kitawala movement has survived through both the colonial period and post-colonial period as a distinct movement in southern and central Africa because it has addressed the ordinary spiritual and material concerns of people in these regions. It has developed its own identity as an authentic belief system as it has evolved over the past century.
Keywords: Watchtower, Kitawala, Jehovah’s Witnesses, Chilembwe, Kanwana, Booth, millennial, syncretism.
UMUC Working Paper Series – Fall Semester
Introduction
Religious syncretism often arises as a response to some external challenge to the existing established order. The process may cause an alteration of meaning and form of the new religion, making it more acceptable to its new practitioners. This alteration can be seen in rituals and symbols, which incorporate elements of the old religion.
This cross-pollination of religions has occurred throughout history and across the globe.
•
A number of biblical scholars, for example, have maintained that the gradual Hebraic adoption of monotheism after 1300 B.C. E. was influenced by the brief experiment of the Egyptian Pharaoh Amenhotep some two centuries earlier (Finkelstein and Silberman, 1971).
•
Egyptian deities such as Amon the chief god may have influenced Greek deities. He was comparable to Zeus, while Re, the Egyptian sun god was similar to Apollo (Bernal, 1987).
•
Roman deities revealed the influences of the Greeks. This may have been the case with Jupiter, who clearly performed the same functions as Zeus, and with Minerva, the goddess of wisdom, whose functions were similar to those of the Greek deity Athena (Grant, 1953).
In all such instances, the later society replaced earlier deities with these new divinities but invested them with their own patronymic. Further, on occasion rituals associated with the imported god were adopted wholesale from the donor society. This occurred even if a Roman designation was attached. Thus, the Greek cult of Dionysius, identified with festivity, was adopted by the Romans who developed the equivalent festival cult of Bacchus (Brown, 2003).
Although sometimes overlooked by scholars, the syncretism process is also evident in other parts of the globe.
•
Buddhism, which is a dominant religion in East and mainland Southeast Asia, has been significantly adapted to local conditions after it left its place of origin in the Indian sub-continent. Thus, the original tenets of Buddhism revolved around the path to eternal enlightenment and salvation through the “four noble truths.” These comprised the concepts that existence involved suffering; the main determinant of this suffering is desire; suffering is destroyed when desire is suppressed; and this end is achieved through correct behavior and thoughts. The goal is nirvana or everlasting spiritual nothingness free of worldly accretions.
•
Yet, when Buddhism reached China it was combined with Confucianism and Taoism. That is, Confucianism’s emphasis on proper conduct between rulers and ruled and among family members was added to Buddhism as was Taoism’s stress on happiness as the result of communion with nature and its avoidance of unnecessary passion, knowledge, and government intervention. UMUC Working Paper Series – Fall Semester
Further, the Chinese stripped Buddhism of providential, otherworldly aspects associated with Indian Buddhism while stressing the goal of ideal ends in this world through proper behavior and simplicity.
•
Similarly, Japan combined Shintoism, which was an amalgamation of ancestor worship, nature worship, and emperor worship, with Buddhism in terms of mutual deities (Conze, 1959).
Africa’s traditional religions have been particularly open to syncretism. This has been seen both in the African diasporas in the Western Hemisphere and in Africa itself. The process has been especially evident in the Caribbean and Brazil but it has occurred in other parts of the Americas. Traditional African deities, for example, were combined with Roman Catholic saints by slaves who had been converted to Christianity, often by force. Thus, for example, the Yoruba goddess of water, Yemenji, was conflated in the Western Hemisphere with the Virgin Mary to become a symbol of purity.
The three most prominent examples of these tendencies -- both historically and in contemporary times -- are Candomble, Santeria, and Vodun (Voodoo).
The first is centered in northeastern Brazil but has followers throughout the Western Hemisphere. Its estimated two million followers have combined over time both Yoruba and Fon deities (originally, therefore, from coastal Nigeria, Benin, and Togo) into the concept of a high god connected to everyday people through spirits. These spirits are identified with Catholic saints. Further, Native American gods are also incorporated into this pantheon of spirits.
Interestingly, the priests of Candomble (also known as Macumba) are viewed as intercessors with these particular spirits. Crucifixes are prominently displayed in Camdomble services, and Jesus is viewed as a deity (Bastide, 1972).
Even more widespread, however, is the rapidly expanding religion of Santeria. This faith, although centered originally in Cuba, now counts millions of adherents throughout the Caribbean, Central America, and the United States. Adherents of Santeria attend Roman Catholic services and undergo such Catholic rites as baptism.
The term “Santeria” derives from Spanish and it means “worship of the saints.” As in the case of Candomble/Macumba, Santeria centers on a High God, one who is correlated with the Christian god? There is also, it should be noted, a Santeria cult of lesser deities/spirits (called “orishas”); these are similar to angels who descend to the earth. Additionally, Santeria has incorporated some Native American deities. In Santeria, the specific spiritual deities have assigned feast days. These are connected to Catholic saints such as St. Anthony of Padua, St. Francis of Assisi, and St. Barbara (Pinn, 1998).
The third example is Vodun, also known as Voodoo. It has over 60,000,000 followers throughout the world, although the religion originally centered in Haiti. Vodun has a high God, which, like the Christian Supreme God, is unknown and remote. Under the chief God are located minor deities such as a god of the sun and a god of the sea.
Deities in Vodun are grouped into sets called “loa.” The deities are identified with Christian saints who have special tasks. For example, there is a deity for travelers -- akin UMUC Working Paper Series – Fall Semester
to St. Christopher in the Roman Catholic tradition, and there is a god especially for the needy, one who is identical with the Catholic’s saint, St. Vincent.
Further, Vodun has (1) borrowed the idea of an afterlife from Christianity, (2) believes that each congregant has a patron saint, and (3) features a concept of angels and demons. Like a motorcar company, which uses a single chassis for several models, these major syncretic faiths derive much of their cosmology from West African roots but include Native American deities (Raboteau, 1978).
But such syncretism does not only exist amongst the African diasporic populations in the New World. On the African continent itself, the colonial period witnessed the arrival and transformation of many Western religious forms. This has played an important role in Africa since the colonial period, because African peoples have used religion as a way of political expression.
Generally, the forms of imported religions have been combined with antecedent African elements to form syncretic religious and political movements. One important product of the synthesis of African and Christian elements is Kitawala. This religion first appeared in Katanga Province (now Shaba) of Congo during the 1920s. Born of African American missionary activity found in South Africa, the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society (Jehovah’s Witnesses), this movement first converted miners in South Africa. These miners then spread the movement northward into the Katangan copper belt.
Thus, the religion developed into a millenarian movement. How? It underwent two distinct phases of development: first, a south central African proto-Kitawala phase, which occurred in what are now the sovereign states of Malawi and Zambia during the years between 1890 and 1925 and second, a subsequent phase, as Kitawala, which dates from 1925 and centered in the Congo
Immediate Background
The Watchtower movement—since 1931 called Jehovah’s Witnesses (Stroup, 1948) -- was especially suited to insurgency in a colonial and post-colonial situation. This movement espoused a theory that political revolution is inevitable and forms part of the divine plan. Concurrently, Watchtower doctrine called on its members to eschew all political activity, since government is a worldly institutions tainted by Satan (as are all institutions not specifically prescribed by the Holy Scriptures).
This rejection of politics included all organized religion as well as all holidays and sacraments not specifically mentioned by the Bible. Secular authority was to be acknowledged only if it did not interfere with the primary task of all members: to be servants of Jesus Christ.
The religious doctrine of this movement also maintained the Christ will return to earth. When this happens, Armageddon will commence, and Watchtower movements will fight as soldiers of God. In the meantime, strict adherents are told not salute national flags, vote, or do military service. Further, taxes are not always to be paid to governments, for the same millenarian reasons (Stroup, 1948). UMUC Working Paper Series – Fall Semester
In addition, Jehovah’s Witnesses, in this religious adaptation, deny the existence of heaven and hell; they attribute both concepts to priestly invention. They reject the idea of the immortal soul for the same reason. This is because they believe that on the Day of Judgment, after the return of Jesus Christ to Earth, people will both become “sheep,” and live forever, or “goats” and die. A new age –the millennium—will commence (Stroup, 1948).
We can note that these beliefs are quite compatible with pre-existing African beliefs especially amongst the Bantu-speaking Luba, Lunda, and related peoples of central Africa (northern Zambia, Malawi, and southern Congo). In the older religious cosmology of the Central African Bantu peoples, for example, the “Mwana Lesa,” or Son of God, was projected to return. He would begin a new age, one that would include a return of the ancestors. This African “Final Judgment” would not merely end all world history; it would signal the beginning of a new age (Rotberg, 1966).
Further, the peoples of central and southern Africa were particularly susceptible to the type of message being brought by the Jehovah’s Witnesses late in the nineteenth century, for they had undergone enormous dislocations. The southern third of the continent witnessed a momentous movement of peoples called the “mfecane.” This meant that hundreds of thousands -- perhaps millions-- were dislodged by the Zulu clan of the Ngoni peoples. The Sotho and Tswana in the north, followed by the Shona peoples and finally the Nyasa peoples were all involved. This movement was so great that much of Africa between the Limpopo and Zambezi rivers was affected: thus, millions in what is now South Africa, Swaziland, Lesotho, Botswana, Zimbabwe, and, to a lesser extent, Mozambique, Zambia, and Malawi were forced to move between 1800 and 1880 (Omer-Cooper, 1966).
In addition, there was another evil: the Zanzibari slave trade. Slaves were captured for the huge clove and cinnamon plantations on the islands of Zanzibar and Pemba. This had caused grave – and additional dislocation – in much of East Central Africa, from the Indian Ocean through the Congo Basin, between 1800 and 1890. The area affected by this activity corresponds to the present-day countries of Tanzania, Kenya, Uganda, Burundi, Rwanda, the eastern third of the Congo, and to a lesser degree, Malawi, Zambia, Somalia, Ethiopia, and the Sudan.
As if all this were not enough, a third aggravating factor was the systematic exploitation of the present-day Congo by King Leopold and his agents between 1880 and 1905 for its rubber and later its copper resources. This led to much suffering by indigenous peoples there.
Finally, the annexation of much of Central Africa by Belgium, Britain, France, and Germany, during the period between 1884 and 1914 known today as the Scramble for Africa -- also led to great physical and psychological dislocation (Robinson and Gallagher, 1961).
Thus: the success of the missionary movement in East Central Africa. There were many competitors for influence. Particularly active were organizations such as the White Fathers and the Free Church of Scotland. However, their roles as semi-collaborators of the British South Africa Company governing Malawi and Zambia until 1924, and of the Belgian authorities in the Congo, who established control of the Congo in 1908, opened UMUC Working Paper Series – Fall Semester
them to challenge by both African-American missionaries and maverick white missionaries who did not automatically go along with the status quo.
Among the most active was Joseph Booth, who preached in Malawi between 1892 and 1902. He encouraged the activities of
•
Seventh-Day Adventists,
•
Representatives of Black American churches such as the African Methodist Episcopal Church, and, ultimately,
•
The Watchtower Society.
The missions established by these groups offered an alternative to a colonial ecclesiastical hierarchy in south central reaches of the continent. They all promised suffering Africa a new millennium (McCracken, 1977).
Significant Precursors to Kitawala: Millennial Movements and Watchtower in South Central Africa
The most well known African millennial figure in this area was John Chilembwe. In 1897, he traveled to Virginia and was there ordained a minister of the American National Baptist Convention—an African-American denomination. In 1900, he returned to Nyasaland (now Malawi) where he founded seven schools and an industrial mission. In his schools he applied the teachings of Booker T. Washington: hard work and self-help as a way of rising in the world.
But he found exploitation of his parishioners and harsh treatment of his students. Further, a number of his rural churches and schools were burned down. He had had it. He initiated a brief uprising in 1915. He urged his followers neither to consent to forced labor nor to pay taxes. A new day was coming. His rebellion was put down. Chilembwe was executed. However, his ideas lived on in Central Africa (Shepperson and Price, 1958; Linden and Linden, 1971).
The first purveyor of Watchtower ideas was Eliot Kanwama. Joseph Booth had influenced Kanwama. Combining preaching with nationalism, he converted to Watchtower in 1908 after a missionary education. In 1908 he became one of the first Africans to found an independent or “Ethiopian” church. At that moment, missionaries across Africa were spreading the potentially subversive millennial message of salvation from the impure temporal world.
A member of a Luba-Lunda offshoot, the Tonga, which was prominent in Malawi and Zambia, Kanwama soon engaged in wholesale baptism of adults—the major sacrament of Watchtower theology. This led to the attraction of many converts, as did his practice of distributing free reading materials (others charged fees). Kanwama and his adherents gained influenced very quickly.
One reason: They had been thoroughly trained by the first generation of African-American missionaries who had spread out from their original base in South Africa. The message was spread that Africans in both this world and the hereafter could manage their affairs in both church and state. They denounced the extant practice of compulsory UMUC Working Paper Series – Fall Semester
school fees, requiring school attendance, and declaring probationary periods before acceptance into the faith. Instead, the new missionaries welcomed all converts without pre-conditions other than adult baptism. Kanwama was periodically deported, between 1909 and 1914, and permanently banned later, but he had laid successfully the foundations of the Watchtower movement Central Africa (Shepperson-a, 1962).
The movement was innovative in other ways, which appealed to emerging African feelings of identity. Thus, entry was color-blind and culturally neutral. In addition, the added philosophy of “Zionism” was introduced. This was the idea that adherents would return to the Holy Land on earth or in heaven. Kanwama proclaimed that Jews would reoccupy Palestine in October 1914; those who had joined his sect before this time would be saved from the Holocaust by being admitted to the kingdom of God via baptism. Baptism thus became a symbol of independence for Africans (Shepperson, 1962b).
Moreover, in contrast to established churches, followers of his movement did not to prove good works to obtain salvation. Baptism was sufficient. Furthermore, all sin and evil could be banished by adult baptism; therefore, witchcraft would not be needed (hence movement adherents in his Watchtower churches would be cured of witchcraft).
The emphasis on adult baptism as the only sacrament also challenged the established religious emphasis on infant baptism. His advocacy of baptism as an alternate to witchcraft, salvation by baptism (colorblind and culture-free), and no probation, or fees, in his version of Watchtower broadcast an implicit message to the entire region: Africa for the Africans. (Fields, 1997)
The gradual Africanization of Watchtower as a vehicle for self-expression in terms of values and beliefs, “mentifacts,” proceeded well especially during the period of 1910-1925. World War I and its immediate aftermath increased pressure on Africans through forced labor requirements, plus poll and hut taxes. The lack of opposition by the established missions gave a further boast to the Watchtower millennial doctrines that the end of the existing world was coming. There would be salvation of those who would be baptized. Those who supported satanic institutions (including the Europeans and their missionary allies) would be enslaved or ejected from the country.
Throughout Africa, World War I had underlined European vulnerability. Consequently, there were renewed challenges to authority. One source was from traditional chiefs, who were seen as collaborators of both the colonial status quo and as supporters of witchcraft.
In 1917-19, throughout northern Zambia, there was Watchtower-inspired unrest. The idea spread that there would be a new order under God, and all otherworldly authority could be ignored. Therefore, civil disobedience toward all authority was justified. Armageddon was en route, and there would be a new chief: God! Over a two-year period, from 1917 to 1919, church elders and deacons replaced traditional local authorities. Civil authority was not reestablished until the latter part of 1919 (Stanley, 2003).
UMUC Working Paper Series – Fall Semester
Watchtower to Kitawala in Zambia and the Congo
Today, the Kitawala movement is centered in the Congo and the adjacent Copperbelt area in Zambia. It is called Chitawala in Malawi, Zambia, and Zimbabwe where it is active but not as prominent as in the Congo (Darman, 2002; Maxwell, 2000). Also similar to Kitawala are other syncretic mo
Student Response Systems - Part I - DE Oracle
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An Online Learning Magazine for UMUC Faculty
Center for Support of Instruction
Student Response Systems - Part I
Linda Smelser
Instructional Support Specialist
Non UMUC
Published: May-June 2009
Category: » Online-pedagogy » Teaching-tools
What are Clickers?
Clickers are transmitter devices designed to support interactivity in face-to-face classes between
faculty and students. The devices were designed to encourage students who attend especially large
classes to participate when asked yes/no and multiple-choice questions. The devices tabulate the
results via connection to the instructor’s laptop for instantaneous feedback to view later or to be shared
immediately. Clickers allow for anonymous participation and add a game approach to the classroom
environment (Martyn, 2007). The three types of clickers available on the market today are infrared
(IR), radio frequency (RF), and WiFi wireless. The table below identifies the advantages/disadvantages
of these types of systems and which companies currently provide them.
Type Advantages Disadvantages Offered by
IR Low equipment cost
No interference issues
as signals cannot go
beyond the classroom
One-way
communication
Requires permanent
installation of multiple
antennas for large
classes
Signal reception can be
unreliable
Has shorter range
Responses limited to
multiple choice or
numeric entry
InterWrite
(http://www.gtcocalcomp.com
/interwriteprs.htm)
eInstruction
(http://www.einstruction.com
/index.cfm?fuseaction=products.Display&
Menu=products)
Turning Technologies
(http://www.turningtechnologies.com
/inputdevices_responsecardir.htm)
Quizdom (http://www.camcor.com
/qwizdom/index.html)
RF Large classes can be
supported without
permanent receiver
installation
Signal reception is
more reliable and has
a longer range
Two-way
communication
Likelihood of
interference issues as
RF can operate on the
same frequencies as
Wi-Fi
Responses limited to
multiple choice or
numeric entry
InterWrite
(http://www.gtcocalcomp.com
/InterWriteFiles/GTCO_PRS.html)
eInstruction
(http://www.einstruction.com
/index.cfm?fuseaction=Products.Display&
Menu=Products&content=CPSrfhighed)
Turning Technologies
(http://www.turningtechnologies.com
/inputdevices_responsecardrf.htm)
iClicker (http://www.iclicker.com/)
Student Response Systems - Part I - DE Oracle
Wi-Fi Uses Web browser for
student interaction
Allows for text entry
and open-ended
responses
Students can use
wide variety of Wi-Fi
devices
Uses existing campus
wireless
infrastructure
Requires students to
have a Wi-Fi
computing device
Fewer choices
currently available in
the marketplace
TurningPoint
(http://turningtechnologies.com)
TI-Navigator
(http://education.ti.com/navigator)
ClassInHand
(http://classinhand.wfu.edu)
Table courtesy of University of Minnesota Student Response Systems Overview
(http://www.classroom.umn.edu/notes/support_srs.asp) .
Purpose of Clickers
Early on, the purpose of clickers was promoted for active learning in the large classroom. However,
clickers are now effectively being used for smaller audiences. In an article from CNET.com (Gilbert,
2005), Ann Auleb, an instructor who teaches the biology of human sexuality, notes how clickers have
helped increase interactive communication in what can be a difficult subject matter for students to
discuss in a classroom setting. The article also mentions that students who have grown up in the social
networking and gaming environment find using the devices engaging because they are already
comfortable communicating via technology. The devices have been used by instructors in conjunction
with yes/no and multiple-choice questions to determine if students understand the subject matter. If
the results show that students do not understand the material, instructors can respond immediately to
the feedback.
Benefits and Challenges
An ECAR Research Bulletin by Beatty (2004) identifies some of the benefits and challenges of clickers
as follows:
Benefits Challenges
Students are more engaged in the
learning process because they are more
emotionally invested in the process.
Instructors are more aware of student
engagement.
Instructors are able to respond more
appropriately to their audience.
The reluctant/shy student now has a
means of being heard.
Students are inclined to be more
interested, attentive and entertained.
By providing results for all to view,
students can see that they may not be
the only one who missed a point.
The role of the student and the
student-instructor and student-content
interaction dynamics will change.
Instructors and students may need to
learn new skills and adjust to a new
approach to delivery of content and
dialogue.
The student-active learning process
changes the way classes are managed
and the instructor's role.
Physical space may need to be
changed to accommodate clicker-friendly
classrooms.
Gaining buy-in from faculty and
students may be difficult to achieve.
Costs, technical support, and training
need to be considered.
Student Response Systems - Part I - DE Oracle
As described under benefits, clickers have the potential to promote better communication and
understanding of content, concepts, and instructor perspective. The challenges of learning a new
content delivery system encourage faculty to think outside the box, and students will experience new
ways of engaging with the content, peers, and professor.
Pilots and Research
Many schools have conducted extensive research on the success, costs, and pedagogical best practices
for using clickers. At the University of Wisconsin (UW), a number of faculty provided a list of
pedagogical uses and general advice after using clickers in their classrooms. A faculty resource site
developed by UW's Learning Technology Center, available at http://www4.uwm.edu/ltc/srs
/faculty/index.cfm (http://www4.uwm.edu/ltc/srs/faculty/index.cfm) , includes a list of research articles,
showcases of use by UW faculty, and clicker manuals. Below is the site's short list of effective
pedagogical uses for clickers:
Asking questions, discussing with peer(s), polling
Assessing knowledge and/or concepts from current or previous lectures / courses
Conducting opinion surveys (using anonymous mode)
Converting case studies to clicker questions
Collecting demographics to include major, career goals, math preparation
Creating clicker slides for students to review and discuss presented materials
Key Questions
Are clickers a good solution for our students, faculty, and environment at UMUC? Beatty
(2004) suggests asking the following questions to determine if clickers are right for an institution:
Are clickers and associated pedagogic perspective and methods consistent with your institutional
mission?
Will students need to encounter clicker-style pedagogy and learning expectations consistently across
courses or only in isolation?
Will instructors be expected to master technical aspects of clicker use, create their own content, and
refine their own pedagogy? Can institution-level support be provided?
Will the fruits of one instructor’s work developing curriculum and pedagogy for a clicker course be
preserved for gathering data for other courses?
Online Options
Other options for similar interactivity between students and instructors exist in the free Web 2.0 world.
Twitter (http://twitter.com/) , for example, can be used for the same purpose as clickers. Demonstrated
at the MDLA conference on March 5, 2009, Twitter is a social networking utility that offers at least two
tools with capabilities similar to clickers: TwitterPoll (http://twitter.com/TwitterPoll) provides immediate
feedback to questions and quizzes, while TwitterFall (http://twitterfall.com/) allows immediate viewing of
student comments as they “fall” one after another in succession. Results of these Twitter tools are
immediately available for view via the Internet, and students can access Twitter from their laptops and
PDAs.
Other options that can be designed to poll students online are QuizEgg (http://quizegg.com/) , PollDaddy
(http://www.polldaddy.com/) , and SurveyMonkey (http://www.surveymonkey.com/) . Some of these tools, such
as PollDaddy, are able to show immediate results to participants after they vote.
Students may already be familiar with Twitter and similar tools. However, the drawbacks with Web 2.0
tools can hinder academic use on a wider scale:
Users need their own accounts.
Student Response Systems - Part I - DE Oracle
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Communication is not secure or private.
Rights, maintenance, and technical support are not controlled by the instructor.
Outsiders (non-students) could potentially access the information and participate in real-time.
In spite of these drawbacks, Web 2.0 tools have a high potential for promoting interactivity online.
References
Beatty, I. (2004, February 3). Transforming Student Learning with Classroom Communication Systems.
EDUCAUSE. Retrieved from http://net.educause.edu/ir/library/pdf/ERB0403.pdf
(http://net.educause.edu/ir/library/pdf/ERB0403.pdf) .
Gilbert, A. (2005, August 5). New for back-to-school: 'Clickers'. CNET News. Retrieved from
http://news.cnet.com/New-for-back-to-school-Clickers/2100-1041_3-5819171.html
(http://news.cnet.com/New-for-back-to-school-Clickers/2100-1041_3-5819171.html) .
Martyn, M. (2007). Clickers in the classroom: An active learning approach. EDUCAUSE Quarterly, (2),
71-74. Retrieved from http://net.educause.edu/ir/library/pdf/EQM0729.pdf
(http://net.educause.edu/ir/library/pdf/EQM0729.pdf) .
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Student Response Systems - Part I - DE Oracl
