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Impact of global climate change on the US wine industry
No full textThe purpose of this study was to explore the impact of climate change on the global production of wine grapes and wine. Wine, which is among the most sensitive and nuanced of agricultural products, reflects how climate change is transforming traditions andpractices that may be centuries old. The research question for this dissertation was: "What are the best management practices to mitigate the impact of global warming on the US wine-producing industry?" Thirty-three relevant studies, from 2000 through 2020, on climate change and the wine industry were systematically reviewed, using thematic synthesis, and supported by technology transfer theory. The TAPUPAS method was used to appraise the quality of the studies selected for the systematic review. Six themes emerged from the systematic review of the literature: impact of global warming, management and its operations, supply chain processes, business strategy in climate change, operational complications and business problems, and customer satisfaction. What this study found is that there are numerous possible mitigation strategies that can be implemented to forestall further damage to grapes and the grape wine producing industry. Based on the evidence revealed by this systematic review, additional mitigation efforts are being studied to prevent or reverse the effects of climate change on the wine industry. Setbacks to proposed strategies occurred during the U.S.’ last national administration that curtailed the U.S.’ positive involvement in the reversal of climate change globally; however, the U.S. is now more actively involved in the Paris Agreement of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC).US WINE INDUSTRY i
Title of Dissertation: IMPACT OF GLOBAL CLIMATE
CHANGE ON THE US WINE INDUSTRY
Tyrone Adaway,
Doctor of Business Administration, 2021
ABSTRACT
The purpose of this study was to explore the impact of climate change on the global production of
wine grapes and wine. Wine, which is among the most sensitive and nuanced of agricultural
products, reflects how climate change is transforming traditions and practices that may be centuries
old. The research question for this dissertation was: "What are the best management practices to
mitigate the impact of global warming on the US wine-producing industry?" Thirty-three relevant
studies, from 2000 through 2020, on climate change and the wine industry were systematically
reviewed, using thematic synthesis, and supported by technology transfer theory. The TAPUPAS
method was used to appraise the quality of the studies selected for the systematic review. Six
themes emerged from the systematic review of the literature: impact of global warming,
management and its operations, supply chain processes, business strategy in climate change,
operational complications and business problems, and customer satisfaction. What this study found
is that there are numerous possible mitigation strategies that can be implemented to forestall further
damage to grapes and the grape wine producing industry. Based on the evidence revealed by this
systematic review, additional mitigation efforts are being studied to prevent or reverse the effects
of climate change on the wine industry. Setbacks to proposed strategies occurred during the U.S.’
last national administration that curtailed the U.S.’ positive involvement in the reversal of climate
change globally; however, the U.S. is now more actively involved in the Paris Agreement of the
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC).
US WINE INDUSTRY ii
Keywords: adaptation, climate change, customer satisfaction, global warming,
management and operations, mitigate, resilience, technology transfer theory, wine production,
viticulture
US WINE INDUSTRY iii
Impact of Global Climate Change on the US Wine Industry
By
Tyrone Adaway
Dissertation submitted to the faculty of the Graduate School of the
University of Maryland Global Campus in partial fulfillment
Of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Business Administration
US WINE INDUSTRY iv
© Copyright by
Tyrone Adaway
2021
US WINE INDUSTRY v
Dedication
I dedicate this dissertation to my wife, parents, family, and friends. Your support and
encouragement throughout this amazing journey has been very much needed and appreciated.
A very special thank you to my wife, Kelly Adaway: your devotion, and encouragement
from the beginning to the end of this process is unmeasurable. You took over many of my daily
tasks to allow me to fully devote myself to this study.
US WINE INDUSTRY vi
Acknowledgements
I would like to thank my family and friends for their constant encouragement and
support: My wife Kelly, my son, Ryan Mobley, my daughter, Kenzie Pepple, and my dad, Ernest
Adaway, Jr. My mother, Anne L. Yancy, RIH, and my friends, all of whom checked in on me
and kept me motivated throughout this course.
I next would like to thank my dissertation mentors Dr. Kathleen Edwards and second
mentor Dr. Wanda Wagner. Their positivity, advice, understanding, patience, wisdom, and never
give up approach kept me focused and confident that I could do this. I am very blessed to have
had them, so much wisdom and they got the best out of me by invigorating my critical thinking
and enhancing my scholarly writing.
Additionally, I want to express my gratitude to :
The University of Maryland Global Campus (UMGC) faculty and staff for providing a
very rich and great doctoral program: Dr Leslie Dinauer, Dr. Bryan Booth, Dr. Marcia Burchard,
Dr. Alex Vernon, Dr. Rose Jarrow. Dr. Sean Spence, Dr. Denise Breckon, Dr. Walter McCollum,
Ms. Marina Caminis, and Ms. Cynthia Thomes.
Finally, I thank my dissertation cohorts, for experiencing this journey with me, The
assistance, encouragement, persistence that this group provided was very instrumental towards
my success. We did it guys!
US WINE INDUSTRY vii
Table of Contents
ABSTRACT ......................................................................................................................... i
Dedication ........................................................................................................................... v
Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................ vi
Table of Contents .............................................................................................................. vii
List of Figures .................................................................................................................. xiii
List of Tables ................................................................................................................... xiv
List of Abbreviations ........................................................................................................ xv
Chapter 1: Introduction to Chapter 1 .................................................................................. 1
Overview of the Management Problem .......................................................................... 1
Background and Overview ............................................................................................. 4
Wine Markets in U.S. and European Regions ............................................................ 5
Discussion of global wine production......................................................................... 6
Discussion of U.S. wine production ........................................................................... 7
Problem Statement and Significance of the Problem ..................................................... 9
Wine Producing Industry in the U.S. .......................................................................... 9
Purpose of the Study ..................................................................................................... 10
Research Question ........................................................................................................ 10
Significance of the Dissertation .................................................................................... 10
Discussion of Themes ................................................................................................... 11
US WINE INDUSTRY viii
Definitions and Terminology ........................................................................................ 13
Chapter Summary ......................................................................................................... 16
Organization of the Dissertation ................................................................................... 16
Chapter 2: Scoping Literature Review and Theoretical Framework ................................ 18
Introduction to Chapter 2 .............................................................................................. 18
Wine Production ........................................................................................................... 21
Conclusion on Theory of Technology Transfer, and Wine Industry Response to Global
Warming .................................................................................................................................. 23
Impact of Global Warming ........................................................................................... 25
Management and Operations ........................................................................................ 29
Business Strategy in Climate Change ........................................................................... 32
Summary and Gap......................................................................................................... 33
Conceptual Framework ................................................................................................. 35
Chapter 3 Method ............................................................................................................. 37
Introduction to Chapter 3 .............................................................................................. 37
Evidence-Based Research Framework ......................................................................... 37
Systematic Review ........................................................................................................ 46
Systematic Review Search Process ............................................................................... 51
Research Question/Objective ........................................................................................ 53
Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria ................................................................................... 53
US WINE INDUSTRY ix
Inclusion Criteria ...................................................................................................... 53
Exclusion Criteria ..................................................................................................... 55
Search for Studies ......................................................................................................... 56
Search Strategy ............................................................................................................. 56
Method of Quality Appraisal ........................................................................................ 58
Transparency ............................................................................................................. 61
Accessibility .............................................................................................................. 61
Purposivity ................................................................................................................ 61
Utility ........................................................................................................................ 62
Propriety .................................................................................................................... 62
Accuracy ................................................................................................................... 63
Specificity ................................................................................................................. 63
Synthesis Methodology ................................................................................................. 63
Summary of Chapter 3 .................................................................................................. 65
Chapter 4 Analysis and Findings ...................................................................................... 67
Introduction to Chapter 4 .............................................................................................. 67
Description of the Dataset ............................................................................................. 68
Search Strategy and Search Results .............................................................................. 69
PRISMA ........................................................................................................................ 70
The Coding Schema ...................................................................................................... 73
US WINE INDUSTRY x
Thematic Coding of Studies...................................................................................... 73
Results of the Quality Appraisal of the Dataset ............................................................ 74
Study Thematic Coding Results ................................................................................... 75
Results of the Descriptive Thematic Analysis .............................................................. 78
Findings and Discussion ............................................................................................... 80
The Type of Findings .................................................................................................... 80
The Impact of Global Warming ................................................................................ 80
General Global Warming .......................................................................................... 81
Negative Effects of Global Warming ....................................................................... 83
Implications of the Findings ..................................................................................... 83
Temperature Rises .................................................................................................... 85
Climate Change ......................................................................................................... 88
Changing Climatic Conditions .................................................................................. 91
Frosts ......................................................................................................................... 93
Drought and Flooding ............................................................................................... 95
Pests and Plant Diseases ........................................................................................... 96
Carbon Dioxide Levels ............................................................................................. 97
Precipitation ............................................................................................................ 100
Thematic Analysis Findings and Study-based Mitigation Strategies for Climate Change
Effects on the Wine Producing Industry ................................................................................. 102
US WINE INDUSTRY xi
Summary of the Findings ............................................................................................ 111
Revised Conceptual Framework ................................................................................. 112
Summary of the Chapter ............................................................................................. 115
Chapter 5 Summary, Conclusions and Recommendations ............................................. 116
Introduction to Chapter 5 ............................................................................................ 116
Review of the Research .............................................................................................. 116
Positive Management Practice to Tackle Climate Change Impact ............................. 117
Business Strategies and Climate Change .................................................................... 118
Impact of Global Warming on Wine-producing Industries ........................................ 118
Impact of General Global Warming ........................................................................... 119
Impact of Increasing Temperature Rise on Wine Production ..................................... 119
Impact of Climate Change on Wine Production and Vineyards ................................. 120
Impact of Climate Change on Wine Production in Relation to Pests and Disease ..... 121
Impacts of Seasonal Warming on Wine Production ................................................... 121
Summary of Findings .................................................................................................. 122
Conclusion .................................................................................................................. 122
Limitations of This Study ........................................................................................... 123
Management Implications/Recommendations ............................................................ 123
Specific Recommendations ......................................................................................... 123
Climate Change:...................................................................................................... 124
US WINE INDUSTRY xii
Strategies: ................................................................................................................ 125
Water: ...................................................................................................................... 126
General: ................................................................................................................... 127
Climate Control:...................................................................................................... 128
Strategies: ................................................................................................................ 128
Areas for Future Research .......................................................................................... 130
Final Conclusion ......................................................................................................... 131
References ....................................................................................................................... 132
Appendix A Quality Appraisal Database ........................................................................ 150
Appendix B The Distribution of the Studies Included in the Systematic Synthesis ....... 152
Appendix C Study Distribution by Study Design ........................................................... 153
Appendix D The Technology Transfer Relationships as Extracted from Individual Studies
.................................................................................................................................................... 154
Appendix E Manual Coding Excel Table ....................................................................... 155
US WINE INDUSTRY xiii
List of Figures
Figure 1 The Implications of Climate Change on the Wine Industry.......................................... 29
Figure 2 Conceptual Framework ................................................................................................. 35
Figure 3 The EBM Framework ................................................................................................... 45
Figure 4 Evidence Based Pyramid ............................................................................................... 47
Figure 5 Systematic Literature Review Process ........................................................................... 52
Figure 6 PRISMA Diagram .......................................................................................................... 72
Figure 7 Revised Conceptual Framework of the Climate Change Mitigation Strategies in
Synthesized Studies ..................................................................................................................... 114
Figure B1 The Distribution of Included Studies by Study Type (in %) ...................................... 152
Figure C1 The Distribution of Studies Included in this Review by Study Design ...................... 153
Figure D1 The Technology Transfer Relationships as Extracted from Individual Studies ....... 154
US WINE INDUSTRY xiv
List of Tables
Table 1 Eight Largest Countries Manufacturing and Producing Wine in 2018 (Robinson et al.,
2019) .............................................................................................................................................. 6
Table 2 Highest Wine Producing States in the United States in 2019 (Drappier, 2019) ................ 8
Table 3 Results of the Coding Showing the Most Frequently Occurring Coded Terms for Global
Climate Change from Line-by-Line Synthesis of the Included Studies ......................................... 77
Table 4 Descriptive Thematic Analysis Findings ......................................................................... 80
Table A1 Quality Appraisal Database ....................................................................................... 150
Table E1 Manual Coding Excel Table ..........................................................
Community-based incubation programs for women entreprepenurs in developing countries: A systematic literature review
No full textAlthough Women entrepreneurs (WE) own a small fraction of businesses in developing countries due to multiple challenges, previous studies identified factors that contribute to low success rates. However, contradictory results regarding these factors indicate the knowledge gap. The goal of the current study is to generate specific programs that are cost-effective and sustainable in resource-poor, developing countries. To this end, a systematic literature review –a cornerstone of evidence-based management –was used to identify the factors that influence the success or failure of WEs in developing countries. A search string containing synonyms for women entrepreneurs, success, failure, factor, and challenge was used to collect 5,727 journal articles from three database aggregators, OneSearch, ABI/INFORM, and SCOPUS. After further screening and quality appraisal, the dataset, which contained 123 articles published between 2015 and 2020, was analyzed with the conceptual lens of the resource-based view of business and incorporated into a theoretical framework based on the business incubation theory. The coding process identified four core capitals–family/social network, human,psychological, and financial–as critical determinants for WE performance. While human and psychological capitals were frequently mentioned as necessary, family/social network capital was the most critical factor because WEs without human or financial capital could still succeed in business if they hadtheir family support and social/professional networks. Thus, programs aimed to support WEs should target their families and establish social and professional networks for WEs. Additionally, a program to educate WEs for entrepreneurial bricolage (resourcefulness) and resilience would boost WE performance because these traits allow WEs to overcome socio-cultural restrictions, financial constraints, and other challenges and succeed in business.COMMUNITY INCUBATION PROGRAMS FOR WOMEN ENTREPRENEURS i
ABSTRACT
Title of Dissertation: COMMUNITY-BASED INCUBATION
PROGRAMS FOR WOMEN
ENTREPREPENEURS IN DEVELOPING
COUNTRIES: A SYSTEMATIC
LITERATURE REVIEW
Yutaka Sagara,
Doctor of Business Administration, 2021
Although Women entrepreneurs (WE) own a small fraction of businesses in developing countries
due to multiple challenges, previous studies identified factors that contribute to low success
rates. However, contradictory results regarding these factors indicate the knowledge gap. The
goal of the current study is to generate specific programs that are cost-effective and sustainable
in resource-poor, developing countries. To this end, a systematic literature review – a
cornerstone of evidence-based management – was used to identify the factors that influence the
success or failure of WEs in developing countries. A search string containing synonyms for
women entrepreneurs, success, failure, factor, and challenge was used to collect 5,727 journal
COMMUNITY INCUBATION PROGRAMS FOR WOMEN ENTREPRENEURS
ii
articles from three database aggregators, OneSearch, ABI/INFORM, and SCOPUS. After further
screening and quality appraisal, the dataset, which contained 123 articles published between
2015 and 2020, was analyzed with the conceptual lens of the resource-based view of business
and incorporated into a theoretical framework based on the business incubation theory. The
coding process identified four core capitals–family/social network, human, psychological, and
financial–as critical determinants for WE performance. While human and psychological capitals
were frequently mentioned as necessary, family/social network capital was the most critical
factor because WEs without human or financial capital could still succeed in business if they had
their family support and social/professional networks. Thus, programs aimed to support WEs
should target their families and establish social and professional networks for WEs. Additionally,
a program to educate WEs for entrepreneurial bricolage (resourcefulness) and resilience would
boost WE performance because these traits allow WEs to overcome socio-cultural restrictions,
financial constraints, and other challenges and succeed in business.
Keywords: business incubation theory, community-based organizations, developing
countries, female entrepreneurs, individual-opportunity nexus theory, intersectionality,
nongovernmental organizations, resource-based view, women entrepreneurs
COMMUNITY INCUBATION PROGRAMS FOR WOMEN ENTREPRENEURS
iii
COMMUNITY-BASED INCUBATION PROGRAMS FOR WOMEN
ENTREPRENEURS IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES: A SYSTEMATIC LITERATURE
REVIEW
By
Yutaka Sagara
Dissertation submitted to the School of Business,
University of Maryland Global Campus, in partial fulfillment
of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Business Administration
2021
COMMUNITY INCUBATION PROGRAMS FOR WOMEN ENTREPRENEURS
iv
© Copyright by
Yutaka Sagara
Year 2021
COMMUNITY INCUBATION PROGRAMS FOR WOMEN ENTREPRENEURS
v
Preface
This study owes its origin, of course, to women entrepreneurs in developing countries. In
particular, I saw women, including my sister-in-law, in the Mon village Khahonkaret (Min Yaw)
in Burma starting and failing in business. Despite these failures, the women entrepreneurs are
resilient: they continue to create, and some eventually succeed in business. Having worked as a
volunteer for nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) and community-based organizations
(CBOs) in Burma and Thailand, I asked: what can we do to help women succeed in business?
This study is the answer to the question.
The world has experienced multiple, unprecedented challenges in the past few years.
Despite these health, societal, and political turmoils in many countries, I believe in the resilience
of women and women entrepreneurs to continue to try and eventually succeed in business and in
life.
COMMUNITY INCUBATION PROGRAMS FOR WOMEN ENTREPRENEURS
vi
Dedication
This work is dedicated to my mother, Masako Okumura, who is on the deathbed from
cancer as I complete this dissertation on June 18, 2021. She has been the inspiration to
everything I have accomplished so far and yet to achieve in the future. Her strong will, her
resilience, and her desire to do her best. These have motivated me throughout my life. Also, she
raised me to be compassionate to others and to be morally upright. Failed though I have on both
accounts many times over, I still try to follow her dicta every day. I owe everything in my life to
her.
This work is also dedicated to my sister, Yukari Sagara Blanche, who died at the young
age of 35 in 1984. To this day, I feel she sacrificed her life for my studies. Without her, I would
not have completed university and beyond. I owe my academic career to her.
Finally, I dedicate this work to my wife, Ohmar Khine. She has consistently supported
and encouraged me to obtain this doctorate. In addition to moral support, she has helped me
understand women’s lives and how they struggle to earn a living in Burma and other developing
countries. Her words painted vivid pictures even in my dull mind and helped me be
compassionate to their plight. I owe this clumsy but completed work to her.
COMMUNITY INCUBATION PROGRAMS FOR WOMEN ENTREPRENEURS
vii
Acknowledgements
This journey has been filled with major challenges; the coronavirus pandemic that started
at the end of 2019, the military junta in Burma (Myanmar) on February 1, 2021, and my
mother’s cancer diagnosis on April 14, 2021, and my subsequent caregiving for her in Japan.
Because all of these events have made it difficult to continue with the doctorate program, I have
thought of quitting the program many times. But extraordinary people listed here have helped me
overcome despondency and complete the doctorate. I wish to acknowledge their tremendous
guidance and support for this endeavor.
First and foremost, I want to thank Dr. Wanda Wagner, my dissertation mentor. Without
her guidance and expertise, I would have surely failed and dropped out long ago. During the
weekly Zoom meeting, Dr. Wagner took time to understand my progress and difficulties, giving
me sagely advice, encouragement, and moral support. The concern and care she has shown for
me and my work have been genuinely monumental and awe-inspiring. Also, her seemingly
bottomless patience has been tested many times by my tardiness and unfortunate events in my
life. Needless to say, this work would not have existed without Dr. Wagner.
Also, I want to thank Dr. Kay Edwards, my second reader. Her comments on this
dissertation, as well as on my presentations, have been invaluable. Dr. Edwards has acted like
my co-mentor, making sure I would stay focused.
I want to thank Dr. Subash Bijlani, my third committee member, for agreeing to be on the
committee at the last minute. Dr. Bijlani’s background in entrepreneurship and his knowledge of
business in developing countries have enriched this project.
COMMUNITY INCUBATION PROGRAMS FOR WOMEN ENTREPRENEURS
viii
Finally, I wish to acknowledge all the professors who helped me along with this excellent
Doctorate program in Business Administration: Drs. Leslie Dinauer (DMG600), Mark De Jong
(DBA800), Lisa Pearo (DBA810), Mary Jo Anderson (DBA820), Denise Breckon (DBA840),
and Walter McCollum (DBA850). Of course, I cannot forget Ms. Marina Caminis, the Wonder
Woman of the program.
COMMUNITY INCUBATION PROGRAMS FOR WOMEN ENTREPRENEURS
ix
Table of Contents
ABSTRACT .................................................................................................................................... i
Preface ............................................................................................................................................ v
Dedication ..................................................................................................................................... vi
Acknowledgements ....................................................................................................................... vii
Table of Contents ........................................................................................................................... ix
List of Tables ............................................................................................................................... xiv
List of Figures ............................................................................................................................. xvii
Chapter 1: Introduction and Overview of the Management Problem ............................................. 1
Background and Overview .......................................................................................................... 1
Problem Statement ................................................................................................................... 7
Significance of the Problem .................................................................................................... 8
Purpose of the Study and The Research Question ...................................................................... 8
Purpose of the Study ................................................................................................................ 9
Research Questions .................................................................................................................. 9
Scope .................................................................................................................................... 10
Significance of the Study .......................................................................................................... 13
Discussion of Concepts and/or Themes .................................................................................... 15
Definitions and Terminology .................................................................................................... 18
Chapter Summary ...................................................................................................................... 20
Organization of the Dissertation ............................................................................................... 21
Chapter 2: Scoping Literature Review and Theoretical Frame .................................................... 23
Entrepreneurship Theories ........................................................................................................ 23
Entrepreneur .......................................................................................................................... 24
Cantillon and Uncertainty ...................................................................................................... 24
Classic and Neoclassic Theories ............................................................................................ 25
Creative Destruction .............................................................................................................. 26
Entrepreneur Characteristics .................................................................................................. 27
COMMUNITY INCUBATION PROGRAMS FOR WOMEN ENTREPRENEURS
x
Psychological Aptitude toward Entrepreneurship ................................................................. 28
Motivation Theories in Entrepreneurship .............................................................................. 41
Women Entrepreneurship .......................................................................................................... 42
Academic Literature on Women Entrepreneurship ............................................................... 43
Measure of “Success” in Women Entrepreneurship .............................................................. 44
Intersectionality ..................................................................................................................... 46
Theoretical Framework ............................................................................................................. 46
Individual-Opportunity Nexus Theory .................................................................................. 47
Business Incubation Theory .................................................................................................. 47
Resource-Based View of Business ........................................................................................ 48
Theoretical Framework and Conceptual Lens ....................................................................... 49
Chapter Summary ...................................................................................................................... 50
Chapter 3: Method ........................................................................................................................ 51
Review Design and Methodology ............................................................................................. 51
The Evidence-Based Research Framework ........................................................................... 51
Systematic Literature Review ................................................................................................... 61
Introduction to SLR ............................................................................................................... 61
General Steps Involved in SLR ............................................................................................. 62
SLR Process for The Current Study ...................................................................................... 63
Formulation of Research Question ........................................................................................ 63
Search Methodology .............................................................................................................. 70
Quality Appraisal of the Included Studies ............................................................................. 79
Data Extraction and Coding .................................................................................................. 86
Analysis and Synthesis .......................................................................................................... 87
Recommendations ................................................................................................................. 88
Chapter Summary ...................................................................................................................... 90
Chapter 4: Analysis and Findings ................................................................................................. 91
COMMUNITY INCUBATION PROGRAMS FOR WOMEN ENTREPRENEURS
xi
Review of the Research Questions ............................................................................................ 91
Dataset Preparation for Systematic Literature Review ............................................................. 92
Search Steps ........................................................................................................................... 92
Screening Steps ...................................................................................................................... 95
Quality Assessment ............................................................................................................... 98
Weight of Evidence ............................................................................................................. 104
Reassessment of Rejected Articles ...................................................................................... 106
Summary of Dataset Preparation ......................................................................................... 108
General Description of the Data Set ........................................................................................ 108
Study Locations ................................................................................................................... 109
Author Location and Cultural Chauvinism ......................................................................... 112
Publication Bias ................................................................................................................... 113
Study Purposes .................................................................................................................... 116
Theoretical Models .............................................................................................................. 118
Study Methods ..................................................................................................................... 120
Participant Descriptions ....................................................................................................... 122
Findings and Discussions ........................................................................................................ 135
Coding and Analysis Method: Review ................................................................................ 135
Codebook and Summary Table ........................................................................................... 136
Preliminary Analysis of Success Factors ............................................................................. 139
Human Capital ..................................................................................................................... 141
Family/Social Network Capital ........................................................................................... 160
Psychological Capital .......................................................................................................... 173
Financial Capital .................................................................................................................. 187
Institutional Factors ............................................................................................................. 200
Socio-cultural Factors .......................................................................................................... 209
COMMUNITY INCUBATION PROGRAMS FOR WOMEN ENTREPRENEURS
xii
Economic Factors ................................................................................................................ 222
Intersectionality ................................................................................................................... 227
Summary of Main Findings ................................................................................................. 232
Revised Conceptual Framework ............................................................................................. 239
Answers to Research Questions .......................................................................................... 240
Revised Conceptual Framework .......................................................................................... 243
Interrelationships among Capitals ....................................................................................... 247
Chapter Summary .................................................................................................................... 249
Chapter 5: Conclusions and Implications ................................................................................... 251
Review of the Research ........................................................................................................... 251
Background Context ............................................................................................................ 251
Research Questions .............................................................................................................. 252
Research Method ................................................................................................................. 253
Theoretical Framework .......................
Encouraging employee buy-in for cybersecurity monitoring programs: A social influence persepective
No full textThis dissertation addresses the lack of knowledge of how to encourage employee buy-in for cybersecurity monitoring programs. The research explores social influence methods that leaders in private organizations can use to improve employee acceptance and compliance with cybersecurity monitoring. The research question is, “How can leaders in private organizations harness social influence processes to improve employees’ acceptance of, and compliance with, cybersecurity monitoring?”. Ajzen’s theory of planned behavior guides the research, which examines attitudes, subjective norms, and perception of behavioral control. Method: The method of inquiry is a systematic review of thirty-four articles containing information on social influence, acceptance, and compliance with electronic monitoring in peer-reviewed academic journals in the last twenty years. Results: Five themes emerge from the analyzed and synthesized data. Monitoring system transparency fosters employee acceptance and compliance. Employee participation in the design, implementation, and administration of the monitoring
system fosters employee acceptance and compliance. Employer-provided justifications for a monitoring system can foster employee acceptance and compliance. Employer invasions of employee privacy decrease employee acceptance and compliance. Thoughtful design with employees in mind increases employee acceptance and compliance. Conclusions: Five recommendations are presented: 1) employers must strive for frequent use of transparency; 2)employees should be encouraged to participate in the on-going design, implementation, and administration of the monitoring systems; 3) l eaders should provide employees with justifications for the monitoring system; 4) e mployers must alleviate employee privacy concerns; 5) e mployers must thoughtfully design monitoring systems. Limitations: A single author conducted this research, lending itself to evidence selection bias and study inclusion biases. During the dissertation, subject matter experts consulted were unreachable due to COVID-19 or unwilling to share their opinions on the subject. Implications: This research will impact organizations by providing recommendations that can gain employee acceptance and compliance with electronic monitoring initiatives while helping to avoid employee feelings of reduced work autonomy, job loss, perceptions of privacy invasion, the conflict between employees and management, low morale and trust, and overall resistance to monitoring.ABSTRACT
Title of Dissertation:
ENCOURAGING EMPLOYEE BUY-IN FOR CYBERSECURITY MONITORING PROGRAMS: A SOCIAL INFLUENCE PERSPECTIVE
Richard Charles Hornberger, Doctor of Business Administration, 2021
This dissertation addresses the lack of knowledge of how to encourage employee buy-in for cybersecurity monitoring programs. The research explores social influence methods that leaders in private organizations can use to improve employee acceptance and compliance with cybersecurity monitoring. The research question is, “How can leaders in private organizations harness social influence processes to improve employees’ acceptance of, and compliance with, cybersecurity monitoring?”. Ajzen’s theory of planned behavior guides the research, which examines attitudes, subjective norms, and perception of behavioral control. Method: The method of inquiry is a systematic review of thirty-four articles containing information on social influence, acceptance, and compliance with electronic monitoring in peer-reviewed academic journals in the last twenty years. Results: Five themes emerge from the analyzed and synthesized data. Monitoring system transparency fosters employee acceptance and compliance. Employee participation in the design, implementation, and administration of the monitoring system fosters employee acceptance and compliance. Employer-provided justifications for a monitoring system can foster employee acceptance and compliance. Employer invasions of employee privacy decrease employee acceptance and compliance. Thoughtful design with employees in mind increases employee acceptance and compliance. Conclusions: Five recommendations are presented: 1) employers must strive for frequent use of transparency; 2) employees should be encouraged to participate in the on-going design, implementation, and administration of the monitoring systems; 3) leaders should provide employees with justifications for the monitoring system; 4) employers must alleviate employee privacy concerns; 5) employers must thoughtfully design monitoring systems. Limitations: A single author conducted this research, lending itself to evidence selection bias and study inclusion biases. During the dissertation, subject matter experts consulted were unreachable due to COVID-19 or unwilling to share their opinions on the subject. Implications: This research will impact organizations by providing recommendations that can gain employee acceptance and compliance with electronic monitoring initiatives while helping to avoid employee feelings of reduced work autonomy, job loss, perceptions of privacy invasion, the conflict between employees and management, low morale and trust, and overall resistance to monitoring.
Keywords: Electronic Monitoring, Acceptance, Compliance, Social Influence, Ajzen’s Theory of Planned BehaviorENCOURAGING EMPLOYEE BUY-IN FOR CYBERSECURITY MONITORING PROGRAMS: A SOCIAL INFLUENCE PERSPECTIVE
By
Richard Charles Hornberger
Dissertation submitted to the School of Business,
University of Maryland Global Campus, in partial fulfillment
of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Business Administration
2021© Copyright by
Richard Charles Hornberger
2021ENCOURAGING EMPLOYEE BUY-IN FOR CYBERSECURITY MONITORING ii
Dedication
I dedicate this dissertation to my family and friends. I owe the most profound debt of gratitude to my wife, Rebecca, and children, Evelyn and William. They sacrificed countless evenings and weekends over the last three and a half years while I devoted my focus to various pieces of academic work. There were very few complaints while I worked through the process, and you kept providing support when I felt like I could not write another sentence.
I also owe gratitude to my parents, Richard and Cynthia, who encouraged me throughout the years to further my educational pursuits and always asked, “Are you a Doctor yet?” Finally, I certainly could not have done this without a brother, Daniel, who continually is furthering his academic pursuits.
I also dedicate this dissertation to the friends and acquaintances who flamed my passion for computers and education in general. The first person to fan the flames for my educational path was Richard Green, who at an early age allowed me to play with and break a costly computer in the ‘90s. If I did not have that experience, I probably would not have a dissertation. Second, I owe a debt to two teachers at Dallastown Area High School, including James Filizzi and Mark Ilyes. James and Mark were Physics professors who flamed a passion for technology, even when my focus at the time was not firmly planted in academia. ENCOURAGING EMPLOYEE BUY-IN FOR CYBERSECURITY MONITORING iii
Acknowledgments
I want to take the opportunity to acknowledge several significant contributors to this dissertation. First and foremost, Dr. Laura Witz, my academic mentor throughout this process. There were countless long nights incorporating feedback and pushing this document further and ever closer to the goal of completion. I could not have done this without your input and guidance. Dr. Marbury, thanks for your second reading, alignment, and ReciteWorks utility ideas.
I would also like to acknowledge my classmates who have pushed each other through the process. I could not have done this without your encouragement on those late nights when we were all sitting up and wondering what is next? Specifically, to Sabrina Viscomi, thank you for allowing me to vent over Below Deck every Monday at 9 pm and for your countless days and evenings spent editing my work.
Four ladies at Phoenix Contact need to be mentioned. Elizabeth “Betsy” Clark, Patricia “Patty” Marrero, Marian Roldan, and Wanda Sipe. The four of you encouraged me to leap four years ago without questioning my intentions, supported me, and asked me how it was going along the way, and have always been champions for me. Todd Wright also requires a special acknowledgment. He has been an open and listening ear and provided articles that had come across at critical periods when I missed a crucial link here or there. The article that you found on Microsoft’s electronic performance monitoring was clutch at a vital juncture, and I always appreciated your review of SOARS videos and various publications.
To my SME’s, thank you for your feedback and ideas along the way. ENCOURAGING EMPLOYEE BUY-IN FOR CYBERSECURITY MONITORING iv
Table of Contents
Dedication...................................................................................................................................... ii
Acknowledgements....................................................................................................................... iii
Table of Contents.......................................................................................................................... iv
List of Tables ................................................................................................................................ ix
List of Figures ................................................................................................................................ x
List of Abbreviations .................................................................................................................... xii
Chapter 1: Introduction and Overview of the Management Problem............................................. 1
Background and Overview ......................................................................................................... 1
History of Electronic Monitoring................................................................................................ 3
Electronic Monitoring Today...................................................................................................... 4
Organizations Implement Electronic Monitoring to Protect Their Bottom Line.................... 6
Organizations are Often Attempting to Address Security Concerns. ..................................... 7
Organizations are Often Trying to Improve Employee Performance. .................................... 9
Organizations are Often Trying to Avoid Legal Liability by Discovering Discrimination and Sexual Harassment................................................................................................................ 10
Negative Employee Responses to Monitoring.......................................................................... 11
Privacy Invasion.................................................................................................................... 11
Lack of Employee Involvement............................................................................................ 13
Lack of Transparency Surrounding Electronic Monitoring Initiatives................................. 14
Lack of Employee Participation............................................................................................ 15
Employee Responses When They Fail to Accept Electronic Monitoring ................................ 15
Rationale for the Study ............................................................................................................. 17 ENCOURAGING EMPLOYEE BUY-IN FOR CYBERSECURITY MONITORING v
The Research Question ............................................................................................................. 18
Organization of the Dissertation ............................................................................................... 18
Chapter 2: Scoping Literature Review and Theoretical Frame .................................................... 20
Electronic Performance Monitoring ......................................................................................... 21
Proponents of Electronic Monitoring.................................................................................... 22
Opponents of Electronic Monitoring .................................................................................... 23
Methods of Electronic Monitoring........................................................................................ 25
Brief History of Leadership Theory.......................................................................................... 26
Early 1900s ........................................................................................................................... 27
The 1950s............................................................................................................................. 28
The 1960s and 1970s ............................................................................................................ 28
The 1970s and 1980s ............................................................................................................ 29
Today ................................................................................................................................... 30
Emergent Leadership. ............................................................................................................... 30
Emergent Leadership Theories. ............................................................................................ 34
Social Influence and Persuasion ............................................................................................... 37
A Brief History of Social Psychology .................................................................................. 38
Social Cognition.................................................................................................................... 40
Social Influence .................................................................................................................... 41
Ajzen’s Theory of Planned Behavior........................................................................................ 48
Early Views of the link between Attitudes and Behavior..................................................... 49
Theory of Reasoned Action to Theory of Planned Behavior................................................ 52
Theoretical Assumptions ...................................................................................................... 54 ENCOURAGING EMPLOYEE BUY-IN FOR CYBERSECURITY MONITORING vi
Attitudes............................................................................................................................... 55
Subjective Norms.................................................................................................................. 57
Perceived Behavioral Control ............................................................................................... 58
Internal and External Factors ................................................................................................ 60
Behavioral Intention and Actual Use .................................................................................... 61
Theoretical Lens.................................................................................................................... 67
Use of Theory of Planned Behavior In Empirical Literature................................................ 68
Chapter 3: Method ........................................................................................................................ 70
Evidence-Based Research Framework ..................................................................................... 70
Evidence Search Strategy ......................................................................................................... 73
Search Terms ........................................................................................................................ 75
Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria........................................................................................... 77
Quality Appraisal ...................................................................................................................... 80
SME’s and Stakeholders ........................................................................................................... 83
Analysis Methodology.............................................................................................................. 90
First Cycle Coding ................................................................................................................ 91
Second Cycle Coding............................................................................................................ 93
Synthesis Methodology............................................................................................................. 94
Coding and Qualitative Data Analysis Software .................................................................. 97
Chapter 4: Analysis and Findings................................................................................................. 99
Review of the Research Question............................................................................................. 99
Subject Matter Experts.............................................................................................................. 99
Description of the Data Set ..................................................................................................... 101 ENCOURAGING EMPLOYEE BUY-IN FOR CYBERSECURITY MONITORING vii
Results of the Quality Appraisal of the Data Set .................................................................... 105
Results of the Synthesis of the Articles in the Data Set.......................................................... 112
First Cycle Coding .............................................................................................................. 112
Second Cycle Coding.......................................................................................................... 118
Thematic Synthesis ................................................................................................................. 126
Summary of Themes ........................................................................................................... 129
Theme 1: Monitoring System Transparency Fosters Employee Acceptance and Compliance ............................................................................................................................................ 129
Theme 2: Employee Participation in the Design, Implementation, and Administration of the Monitoring System Fosters Employee Acceptance and Compliance ................................. 131
Theme 3: Employer-Provided Justifications for a Monitoring System can Foster Acceptance and Compliance .................................................................................................................. 134
Theme 4: Employer invasions of employee personal privacy decrease employee acceptance and compliance ................................................................................................................... 137
Theme 5: Thoughtful Design with Employees in Mind Increases Employee Acceptance and Compliance ......................................................................................................................... 139
Ancillary Analysis .................................................................................................................. 142
Chapter 5: Conclusions and Implications ................................................................................... 149
Review of the Research .......................................................................................................... 149
Management Recommendations............................................................................................. 152
Recommendation 1 – Leaders Should Provide Employees with Justifications for The Monitoring System.............................................................................................................. 152
Recommendation 2 – Employers Must Alleviate Employee Privacy Concerns................. 158 ENCOURAGING EMPLOYEE BUY-IN FOR CYBERSECURITY MONITORING viii
Recommendation 3 – Employees Should be Encouraged to Participate in the Ongoing Design, Implementation, and Administration of Monitoring Systems. .............................. 162
Recommendation 4 – Employers Must Thoughtfully Design Monitoring Systems........... 165
Recommendation 5 – Employers Must Strive for Frequent Use of Transparency. ............ 167
New Conceptual Model .......................................................................................................... 172
Limitations .............................................................................................................................. 173
Future Research ...................................................................................................................... 173
Conclusion .............................................................................................................................. 175
References.................................................................................................................................. 176
Appendix A................................................................................................................................ 221
Appendix B .....................................................................
Managing employee self-efficacy: A systematic review identifying strategies to motivate the federal workforce
No full textPrevious studies have revealed that higher employee self-efficacy leads to higher employee performance. The purpose of this study is to identify the mechanisms that federal managers may use to improve employee self-efficacy in order to improve employee performance. A systematic review was used for this qualitative study to investigate how federal managers can influence employee self-efficacy. Inductive coding was applied to 125 articles to conduct a thematic synthesis. Three primary themes and nine subthemes emerged for federal managers to recognize and influence in order to influence employee self-efficacy. The themes identified in the systematic review are individual, teams,and structure. Individual subthemes identified are practice, mental and physical health, and frame of mind. Team subthemes are leadership, socialization, and feedback. Structure subthemes are organizational structure, training, and rate of improvement. The identification of these themes provides tangible steps for managers to influence employee self-efficacy.MANAGING EMPLOYEE SELF-EFFICACY
ABSTRACT
Title of Dissertation:
MANAGING EMPLOYEE SELF-EFFICACY: A SYSTEMATIC REVIEW IDENTIFYING STRATEGIES TO MOTIVATE THE FEDERAL WORKFORCE
Dreux Michael Johnson, Doctor of Business Administration, 2021
Previous studies have revealed that higher employee self-efficacy leads to higher employee performance. The purpose of this study is to identify the mechanisms that federal managers may use to improve employee self-efficacy in order to improve employee performance. A systematic review was used for this qualitative study to investigate how federal managers can influence employee self-efficacy. Inductive coding was applied to 125 articles to conduct a thematic synthesis. Three primary themes and nine subthemes emerged for federal managers to recognize and influence in order to influence employee self-efficacy. The themes identified in the systematic review are individual, teams, and structure. Individual subthemes identified are practice, mental and physical health, and frame of mind. Team subthemes are leadership, socialization, and feedback. Structure subthemes are organizational structure, training, and rate of improvement. The identification of these themes provides tangible steps for managers to influence employee self-efficacy.
MANAGING EMPLOYEE SELF-EFFICACY
Keywords: self-efficacy, management, federal employee, performance, federal government
MANAGING EMPLOYEE SELF-EFFICACY
MANAGING EMPLOYEE SELF-EFFICACY: A SYSTEMATIC REVIEW IDENTIFYING STRATEGIES TO MOTIVATE THE FEDERAL WORKFORCE
By
Dreux Michael Johnson
Dissertation submitted to the Faculty of the School of Business at the
University of Maryland Global Campus, in partial fulfillment
of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Business Administration
2021
MANAGING EMPLOYEE SELF-EFFICACY
© Copyright by
Dreux Michael Johnson
2021
MANAGING EMPLOYEE SELF-EFFICACY
ii
Preface
A few years ago, I worked with an individual who desperately tried to improve his own performance, but was unable to do so. As I worked with this individual to help him improve, I observed that one of the reasons he was unsuccessful was that he did not believe in his skills or ability to improve. It did not matter what support I offered, from technical advice to recommendations in time management. I watched him become encumbered by debilitating stress, and despite the claims that he wanted to perform, he seemed wary of engaging in the work independently. I observed that a major source of the stress appeared to be the working environment and coworkers, which instead of supporting this individual’s attempts to perform, undercut the performance efforts by becoming more critical. If there was a chance for him to develop confidence, it was certainly undermined by his working environment. This turned into a vicious cycle of inadequate performance. Unfortunately, this was not the only person I have seen fall into this trap. It is possible that the individual or like individuals are simply in a position that is not a good fit, but it left me wondering if there was a way to help individuals, assuming they otherwise are capable, to develop a belief that they could overcome performance issues and help them successfully contribute to their team and their organization.
During my studies in the Doctor of Business Administration program at the University of Maryland Global Campus, I stumbled upon the concept of self-efficacy. I had encountered it earlier in my studies, but only to a limited extent, and at the time I did not realize its relevance or possible implications. Rediscovering the term in my doctoral program, I decided that this was the time to find some answers. Although it may be too late to help the previously mentioned individual, as I assumed leadership positions, I through I might be able to find solutions to avoid wasted potential. This line of thinking motivated my initial research into finding ways that MANAGING EMPLOYEE SELF-EFFICACY
iii
federal managers can influence employee self-efficacy to improve performance. My findings include suggestions that may be useful to other managers who find themselves in similar situations. Performance is not an easy metric to evaluate, and people are significantly more complex than we often give them credit for, especially as individuals interact with each other and derive their own perceptions of workplace interactions, behaviors, and their related impact regarding the performance of employees and the organization. I sincerely hope that the findings in this study provide managers an alternative perspective regarding employee performance, through self-efficacy, and that efforts to improve these beliefs will have a meaningful and fulfilling impact not only on the performance of employees, but also toward the general fulfillment of all parties involved. Life is too short not to try to help people reach their potential.
MANAGING EMPLOYEE SELF-EFFICACY
iv
Dedication
This dissertation is dedicated to all who have been labeled by learning disabilities and told that you are not capable of achieving your goals and following your dreams or must otherwise accept a world that you cannot fit into as yourself. This dissertation is for you, for great things come from those of you with the courage to chase your own dreams while discarding the erroneous opinions that claim to know your worth without knowing you and would prevent you from realizing your true potential. MANAGING EMPLOYEE SELF-EFFICACY
v
Acknowledgements
Many people have supported me in my efforts to write this dissertation. First and foremost, my wife Yu Sun. I thank you for your support through major effort that took away time that would otherwise be ours but that allowed me to pursue my goals and afforded me the opportunity to learn so many new concepts and ideas. Your support and sacrifices are a major reason this is possible. I also thank my dissertation advisor Dr. Raymond Marbury and second reader Dr. Laura Witz for their support, ideas, and critiques that helped me complete this dissertation. And a special thank you to my editor Toni Williams for her help polishing this dissertation.
The road here has been an exciting adventure not only for the things I learned along the way, but for what I have learned about myself. None of it would have been possible without the wonderful individuals who provided instruction, guidance, and support as part of the Doctor of Business Administration program at the University of Maryland Global Campus. I owe my gratitude to my current and former cohort members, of whom there are too many to individually name. I learned a great deal from you all and genuinely appreciated the time we had together. Your input from the beginning of this journey as we entered the doctoral program together contributed to my personal growth and helped me maintain my sanity through our shared experiences and support. I also want to thank all my professional colleagues, coworkers, supervisors, and managers who provided encouragement and support as I undertook this journey, with a special thank you to Nathan Johnson, who supported my initial application to the program in 2017.
The support of friends and family is often just as important as the direct task at hand. In that, I wish to acknowledge the support of my parents Dana and Linda Johnson for providing me MANAGING EMPLOYEE SELF-EFFICACY
vi
many of the early life lessons that facilitated the development of my resiliency and determination. Dad, you consistently encouraged and challenged me to keep an open mind. Mom, you have always been my greatest supporter in my educational endeavors, and your support helped facilitate my eventual growth to overcome my childhood learning disability. Together you both taught me to never give up. My sister Autumn and her husband Brandon Jones, my brother Dustin Johnson, and my friends Ryan McCauley, Adele Heintel, and Dibs Romero Salas, thank you for your perspectives, love, friendship, and camaraderie over the years. The lessons I learned from our time together brought me here today. I would be remiss if I did not acknowledge the patience of my cat Yuki, who put up with my writing for nearly a year before she vocalized her need for attention with consistent meowing in the morning, forcing me to take breaks from writing in order to play. Lastly, I must acknowledge the support of the post-9/11 GI Bill. The life lessons of my military service and the resources that service provided me are ultimately the reasons any of this was possible. MANAGING EMPLOYEE SELF-EFFICACY
vii
Table of Contents
Preface............................................................................................................................................ ii
Dedication ..................................................................................................................................... iv
Acknowledgements ......................................................................................................................... v
Table of Contents .......................................................................................................................... vii
List of Tables ................................................................................................................................ ix
List of Figures ................................................................................................................................ x
Chapter 1: Introduction and Overview of the Management Problem ............................................. 1
Background and Overview ......................................................................................................... 1
Problem Statement and Significance of the Problem ................................................................. 4
The Federal Context ................................................................................................................ 5
Self-Efficacy ........................................................................................................................... 6
Purpose of the Study and the Research Question ....................................................................... 7
Rationale for the Study ............................................................................................................... 8
Definitions and Terminology ...................................................................................................... 8
Chapter Summary ....................................................................................................................... 9
Organization of the Dissertation ................................................................................................. 9
Chapter 2: Scoping Literature Review and Theoretical Frame .................................................... 11
Theoretical Framework ............................................................................................................. 11
Scoping Literature Review ....................................................................................................... 15
Employee Performance ......................................................................................................... 15
Factors of Employee Motivation .......................................................................................... 18
Motivation and Self-Efficacy ................................................................................................ 27
Workplace Performance and Self-Efficacy .......................................................................... 27
Self-Efficacy and Occupational Pursuits .................................................................................. 31
General and Specific Self-Efficacy ........................................................................................... 32
Conceptual Framework ............................................................................................................. 33
Chapter Summary ..................................................................................................................... 34
Chapter 3: Method ........................................................................................................................ 36
Review Design and Methodology ............................................................................................. 36
Evidence-Based Management Research Framework............................................................ 36
Systematic Reviews .............................................................................................................. 37
Method of Quality Appraisal of the Included Studies .......................................................... 42
Analysis and Synthesis Methodology ....................................................................................... 45
Coding Process...................................................................................................................... 46
Method of Synthesis ............................................................................................................. 48
Chapter Summary ..................................................................................................................... 49
Chapter 4: Analysis and Findings ................................................................................................. 50
Review of the Research Question ............................................................................................. 50
Description of the Data Set ....................................................................................................... 50
Search String and Databases ................................................................................................. 51
Screening and Eligibility....................................................................................................... 52
Results of the Quality Appraisal of the Data Set ...................................................................... 52
Findings and Discussion ........................................................................................................... 53
Individual .............................................................................................................................. 55 MANAGING EMPLOYEE SELF-EFFICACY
viii
Teams ................................................................................................................................... 65
Structure ............................................................................................................................... 74
Summary of Findings ................................................................................................................ 84
Revised Conceptual Model ....................................................................................................... 84
Chapter Summary ..................................................................................................................... 85
Chapter 5: Conclusions and Implications ..................................................................................... 87
Review of the Research ............................................................................................................ 87
Summary of the Problem ...................................................................................................... 87
Methodology ......................................................................................................................... 88
Themes ................................................................................................................................. 89
Answer to the Research Question ............................................................................................. 91
Management Implications ......................................................................................................... 92
Know Your Employees ......................................................................................................... 92
Support Your Employees ...................................................................................................... 95
Develop Leaders Who Value People .................................................................................... 98
Implement Systems That Facilitate the Growth and Health of Employees ........................ 101
Synergize Individuals, Structure, and Teams ..................................................................... 105
Limitations of the Study and Areas for Future Research ........................................................ 108
Limitations of the Study...................................................................................................... 108
Areas for Future Research .................................................................................................. 110
Final Summary and Conclusion .............................................................................................. 111
References .................................................................................................................................. 113
Appendix A ................................................................................................................................ 151
Appendix B ................................................................................................................................ 152
Appendix C ................................................................................................................................ 153
Appendix D ................................................................................................................................ 154
Appendix E ................................................................................................................................ 182
Appendix F................................................................................................................................. 191
MANAGING EMPLOYEE SELF-EFFICACY
ix
List of Tables
Table 1 Steps in a Systematic Review...........................................................................................39
Table 2 Synonyms of Search Terms..............................................................................................41
Table 3 TAPUPAS Score Descriptions ........................................................................................44
Table 4 The Individual Theme and Related Subthemes ...............................................................89
Table 5 The Teams Theme and Related Subthemes .....................................................................90
Table 6 The Structure Theme and Related Subthemes .................................................................91
MANAGING EMPLOYEE SELF-EFFICACY
x
List of Figures
Figure 1 Conceptual Framework .................................................................................................34
Figure 2 Types of Studies Included in Systematic Review ...........................................................53
Figure 3 Themes of Manger’s Influence ......................................................................................54
Figure 4 Revised Conceptual Framework ....................................................................................85
MANAGING EMPLOYEE SELF-EFFICACY
1
Chapter 1: Introduction and Overview of the Management Problem
Federal supervisors and managers are responsible for implementing policy, regulations, and laws enacted by the legislative and executive branches and interpreted by the judicial branch of the federal government. To do this effectively, they must ensure the quality performance of their program responsibilities and the personnel supporting these programs. Employee performance has been a subject of interest in many organizations, including federal departments and agencies. Although the performance of federal employees has been of interest to the public and to federal managers since the inception of the country, the American public often has different beliefs regarding the working dynamics of the government. However, regardless of policy and philosophical debates, federal supervisors and managers have a responsibility to manage performance.
This chapter opens with the background and overview to provide context to the role and environment in which federal managers find themselves. The next sections include a discussion of the problem and the significance of the study, followed by a discussion of the research question and the rationale for the study. After that, a discussion of the conc
The Future of Family Policy in the United States
No full textIn comparison to most other developed countries, the United States trails behind in the implementation of family policy. Despite desires to bolster the labor force and enable women to enter and remain in the work force, family policies have not been effectively identified and executed. With more parents working either by choice or financial necessity, the United States is desperately in need of policy reform. This report seeks to illustrate the necessity of comprehensive family policy to address paid leave and childcare subsidies in the United States.1
A survey conducted by the Institute for Women’s family income spent on childcare still remains around seven percent of a family’s income, idies due to insufficient funding or a facility’s refusal
This paradigm maintains that “society is structured to do the greatest good for the ople” (Dunn, 2020). As illustrated above, the implementation of family President Nixon vetoed this proposal citing cost and the consideration that “the bill home and entering the workforce” (
fund the endeavor by taxing “households with a net and net worth above $1 billion at 3 percent” ( y “offsetting costs through reduced government spending on the charitable – – child care” (policies. The fact that the United States came so near to enacting such policy in the 1970’s
Laughlin, Lynda. 2013. Who’s Minding the Kids? Child Care Arrangements: Spring 2011.
Relationship status? It's complicated: How consumer-brand relationships influence the organizational outcomes of brand transgressions
No full textThe business landscape has shifted from simply delivering quality products and services to creating shared value. It does this by fulfilling consumers’ deeper needs and meeting their increasingly high expectations. Brand transgressions (BT), which can range from product failures to ethical misconduct, inhibit organizations’ ability to meet consumers’ demands, complicating the consumer-brand relationship (CBR). As a result, brands are often unprepared to deal with the consequences of transgressions, which can be costly. The purpose of this dissertation is to utilize realist synthesis to answer the research question: How are the organizational outcomes of brand transgressions influenced by prior consumer-brand relationships? Social contract theory (SCT) serves as the lens through which the consumer-brand relationship and transgressions are explored. This systematic review synthesizes 39 articles to derive five analytical themes: (1) Relationships are complicated; (2) consumers form expectations in brand relationships; (3) love and hate: organizational outcomes of brand
transgressions; (4) the severity of the brand transgression matters; and (5) changing the trajectory through forgiveness. Furthermore, evidence suggests that thoughbrands transgressions are inevitable, negative organizational outcomes are not. That is, brand managers can influence the outcomes of brand transgressions in two critical ways. First, brands can build strong consumer-brand relationships that foster forgiveness. Second, brands must be prepared to respond to negative events quickly, strategically, and authentically. In closing, viewing consumer-brand relationships through the lens of social contract theory provides a simple heuristic device that can prevent brand transgressions from becoming costly mistakes that dilute brand equity.ABSTRACT
Title of Dissertation:
RELATIONSHIP STATUS? IT’S COMPLICATED: HOW CONSUMER-BRAND RELATIONSHIPS INFLUENCE THE ORGANIZATIONAL OUTCOMES OF BRAND TRANSGRESSIONS
Sabrina Viscomi, Doctor of Business Administration, 2021
The business landscape has shifted from simply delivering quality products and services to creating shared value. It does this by fulfilling consumers’ deeper needs and meeting their increasingly high expectations. Brand transgressions (BT), which can range from product failures to ethical misconduct, inhibit organizations’ ability to meet consumers’ demands, complicating the consumer-brand relationship (CBR). As a result, brands are often unprepared to deal with the consequences of transgressions, which can be costly. The purpose of this dissertation is to utilize realist synthesis to answer the research question: How are the organizational outcomes of brand transgressions influenced by prior consumer-brand relationships? Social contract theory (SCT) serves as the lens through which the consumer-brand relationship and transgressions are explored. This systematic review synthesizes 39 articles to derive five analytical themes: (1) Relationships are complicated; (2) consumers form expectations in brand relationships; (3) love and hate: organizational outcomes of brand transgressions; (4) the severity of the brand transgression matters; and (5) changing the trajectory through forgiveness. Furthermore, evidence suggests that though brands transgressions are inevitable, negative organizational outcomes are not. That is, brand managers can influence the outcomes of brand transgressions in two critical ways. First, brands can build strong consumer-brand relationships that foster forgiveness. Second, brands must be prepared to respond to negative events quickly, strategically, and authentically. In closing, viewing consumer-brand relationships through the lens of social contract theory provides a simple heuristic device that can prevent brand transgressions from becoming costly mistakes that dilute brand equity.
Keywords: consumer-brand relationship, brand transgression, social contract, brand equity, brand management, consumer behavior
BREAK
RELATIONSHIP STATUS? IT’S COMPLICATED: HOW CONSUMER-BRAND RELATIONSHIPS INFLUENCE THE ORGANIZATIONAL OUTCOMES OF BRAND TRANSGRESSIONS
By
Sabrina Viscomi
Dissertation submitted to the School of Business,
University of Maryland Global Campus, in partial fulfillment
of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Business Administration
2021
© Copyright by
Sabrina Viscomi
2021
ii
Dedication
I dedicate this dissertation to those that have given me everything – my family and friends. First, I thank my incredibly amazing and supportive husband, Aaron. Not only did you inspire my research topic, but you inspire me every day. Without your endless encouragement and belief in me, I would not be here today, personally, professionally, or otherwise. You’re my everything and make it all worth it! Second, though not necessarily in that order, my parents deserve the credit for this accomplishment. They sacrificed everything for my siblings and I to have opportunities to succeed. This is for them.
Endless gratitude goes to my entire family, for reminding me of who I am and providing their support, thoughts, and humor in my countless moments of doubt. Near and far, you are my heart. I extend an extra special thank you to my grandparents for showing me the value of grit and determination. Finally, but certainly not least importantly, I dedicate this to my friends. Thank you for your constant encouragement and for patiently listening and pretending to be interested in my research. Thank you for thinking I’m way better than I am. It’s humbling and heartwarming. I am one lucky person for having so many people to share in this accomplishment. iii
Acknowledgements
While there are many I want to acknowledge, above all, I humbly thank Dr. Pearo. Thank you is simply not enough for your endless support, feedback, and encouragement. I regard you not only as my dissertation mentor, but my personal and professional aspiration. I am also grateful to my second reader, Dr. Anderson. You have been our biggest cheerleader from the start – thank you! I cannot acknowledge the DBA program without acknowledging Dr. Dinauer, to whom I am incredibly grateful for setting me on this journey. You changed my path in life and gave me the confidence to keep going.
I could have made it through this program without the awesome faculty at UMGC, especially Dr. Holliday, Dr. Breckon, Dr. DeJong, Dr. Vernon, and Dr. Bouchard. Thank you for believing in me when I didn’t believe in myself. I would be remiss not to acknowledge everyone at Towson University, especially Dean Kaynama. Thank you for providing your guidance and making this all possible. I also extend a million thanks to my subject matter experts – Timm Baldwin, Julie Cottineau, Jennifer Donahoe, Matt McDermott, and Gema Vinuales. Your valuable insights were an integral part of this dissertation, and I greatly appreciate all the time and effort you put into helping me. Lastly, but in no way least important, my fellow classmates, in this cohort and those past. Rich, Jess, Heather, Bill, Bernard, Priscilla, Dawn, Dreux, Angie, Don, Doris, and Hiwot who are truly the greatest Force. I am a better person for having been through this journey with each of you. This experience would not have been the same without you. I will miss you all greatly!
iv
Table of Contents
Dedication ...................................................................................................................................... ii
Acknowledgements ........................................................................................................................ iii
Table of Contents ........................................................................................................................... iv
List of Tables ................................................................................................................................ vi
List of Figures ............................................................................................................................... vii
List of Abbreviations ................................................................................................................... viii
Chapter 1: Introduction and Overview of the Management Problem ............................................. 1
Background and Overview ......................................................................................................... 1
Problem Statement ...................................................................................................................... 4
Rationale for the Study ............................................................................................................... 5
Importance to Management ........................................................................................................ 6
The Research Question ............................................................................................................... 9
Organization of the Dissertation ................................................................................................. 9
Chapter 2: Scoping Literature Review and Theoretical Frame .................................................... 11
The Literature Landscape ......................................................................................................... 11
Brand Transgressions ............................................................................................................ 12
Consumer-Brand Relationship “Theory” .............................................................................. 17
Chapter 3: Method ........................................................................................................................ 43
The Evidence-Based Research Framework .............................................................................. 43
Why Systematic Review? ..................................................................................................... 43 Realist Synthesis ................................................................................................................... 44 The Process ........................................................................................................................... 47
Search Strategy ......................................................................................................................... 48
Search Terms ........................................................................................................................ 50
Inclusion and exclusion criteria ............................................................................................ 52
Quality Appraisal ...................................................................................................................... 54
Method of quality appraisal of the included studies ............................................................. 54
Subject Matter Experts .............................................................................................................. 56
SME Feedback .......................................................................................................................... 58
Analysis and Synthesis Methodology ....................................................................................... 60
Method of Synthesis ............................................................................................................. 60
Chapter Summary ..................................................................................................................... 61
Chapter 4: Analysis and Findings ................................................................................................. 62
Review of the Research Question ............................................................................................. 62
Literature Search Results .......................................................................................................... 62
Quality Appraisal Results ......................................................................................................... 67
Data Extraction & Description of the Dataset .......................................................................... 68
Consumer-Brand Relationships ............................................................................................ 71
Organizational Outcomes...................................................................................................... 72
Coding & Analysis .................................................................................................................... 74
First Cycle Coding ................................................................................................................ 75
Second Cycle Coding ............................................................................................................ 77
Thematic Synthesis ............................................................................................................... 82 v
Results of the Synthesis of the Articles in the Data Set ............................................................ 84
Chapter Summary: .................................................................................................................. 106
Chapter 5: Conclusions and Implications ................................................................................... 107
Review of the Research .......................................................................................................... 107
Theme 1: Relationships are Complicated - Management Implications .................................. 108
Theme 2: Consumers Form Expectations - Management Implications .................................. 110
Theme 3: Organizational Outcomes - Management Implications .......................................... 111
Theme 4: The Severity of the Brand Transgressions Matters - Management Implications ... 113
Theme 5: Changing the Trajectory Through Forgiveness - Management Implications ......... 114
A New Approach .................................................................................................................... 116
Tenets of Social Contract Theory - Exchange .................................................................... 116
Tenet of Social Contract Theory – Relationship Norms ..................................................... 117
The Social Contract............................................................................................................. 118
Answer to the Research Question ........................................................................................... 121
Limitations of the Study and Areas for Future Research ........................................................ 124
Areas for Future Research ...................................................................................................... 125
Final Summary and Conclusion .............................................................................................. 126
References .................................................................................................................................. 129
Appendix A: Databases included in OneSearch ......................................................................... 142
Appendix B: Participating Subject Matter Experts (SMEs) ....................................................... 143
Appendix C: SME Communication (Phase I) ............................................................................. 144
Appendix D: Proposal Shared with SMEs (Phase I) .................................................................. 145
Appendix E: SME Phase II Correspondence .............................................................................. 147
Appendix F: Full-Text Exclusion Report ................................................................................... 153
Appendix G: All Articles Assessed for Quality .......................................................................... 164
Appendix H: Data Extraction Table ........................................................................................... 166
Appendix I: First Cycle Codes .................................................................................................... 176
vi
List of Tables
Table 1 ......................................................................................................................................... 20
Table 2 ......................................................................................................................................... 49
Table 3 ......................................................................................................................................... 51
Table 4 ......................................................................................................................................... 53
Table 5 ......................................................................................................................................... 56
Table 6 ......................................................................................................................................... 58
Table 7 ......................................................................................................................................... 63
Table 8 ......................................................................................................................................... 67
Table 9 ......................................................................................................................................... 69
Table 11 ....................................................................................................................................... 83
Table 12 ....................................................................................................................................... 86
Table 13 ....................................................................................................................................... 99 vii
List of Figures
Figure 1 ........................................................................................................................................ 13
Figure 2 ........................................................................................................................................ 18
Figure 3 ........................................................................................................................................ 30
Figure 4 ........................................................................................................................................ 41
Figure 5 ........................................................................................................................................ 64
Figure 6 ........................................................................................................................................ 65
Figure 7 ........................................................................................................................................ 66
Figure 8 ........................................................................................................................................ 70
Figure 9 ........................................................................................................................................ 71
Figure 10 ...................................................................................................................................... 72
Figure 11 ...................................................................................................................................... 73
Figure 12 ...................................................................................................................................... 75
Figure 13 ...................................................................................................................................... 76
Figure 14 ...................................................................................................................................... 78
Figure 15 ...................................................................................................................................... 79
Figure 16 ...................................................................................................................................... 80
Figure 17 ...................................................................................................................................... 81
Figure 18 ...................................................................................................................................... 93
Figure 19 ...................................................................................................................................... 96
Figure 20 .................................................................................................................................... 112
Figure 21 .................................................................................................................................... 123
Figure 22 .................................................................................................................................... 128 viii
List of Abbreviations
BT – Brand Transgressions are actions that violate “the implicit or explicit rules guiding consumer-brand relationship performance and evaluation” (Aaker et al., 2004, p. 2). Aaker et al. (2004) were the first to define brand transgressions in the context of the consumer-brand relationship in the seminal article When Good Brands Do Bad.
CB
Adjunct faculty participation in the centralized design of online courses
No full textThis literature-based study seeks to identify best practices for adjunct faculty participation in the centralized design of online courses. Literature from 2014–June 2018 relating to faculty participation in course and curriculum design was identified through a search of the ERIC database. Following further examination, nine
studies were selected for analysis. These were analyzed within the framework of participative decision-making,
by identifying whether participation was format or informal, direct or indirect, long-term or short-term, and high or low access/influence. Findings indicate that faculty participation in course design takes place in a variety of
ways and is frequently accompanied by faculty learning and development initiatives. For adjunct faculty, it is
particularly important to create a variety of opportunities that meet their willingness and ability to participate.
Though online courses, centralized design, and adjunct faculty are each discussed in some of the selected studies, no studies were identified that specifically addressed adjunct faculty participation in the centralized design of online courses. As this context is likely to be important in the future of higher education, further study of effective approaches is recommended.Adjunct Faculty Participation in the Centralized
Design of Online Courses
Sarah Felber
University of M
aryland Global Campus
[email protected]
Abstract
This literature-based study seeks to identify best practices for adjunct faculty participation in the centralized
design of online courses. Literature from 2014–June 2018 relating to faculty participation in course and
curriculum design was identified through a search of the ERIC database. Following further examination, nine
studies were selected for analysis. These were analyzed within the framework of participative decision-making,
by identifying whether participation was format or informal, direct or indirect, long-term or short-term, and high
or low access/influence. Findings indicate that faculty participation in course design takes place in a variety of
ways and is frequently accompanied by faculty learning and development initiatives. For adjunct faculty, it is
particularly important to create a variety of opportunities that meet their willingness and ability to participate.
Though online courses, centralized design, and adjunct faculty are each discussed in some of the selected studies,
no studies were identified that specifically addressed adjunct faculty participation in the centralized design of
online courses. As this context is likely to be important in the future of higher education, further study of
effective approaches is recommended.
Introduction
The scaling up of online education may be accompanied by increasing unbundling of the faculty role, such that
adjunct faculty are hired to teach courses that they had no hand in constructing. While this model has benefits
and may be necessary in large-scale operations, it also raises questions regarding how adjunct faculty, as
employees and as users of an educational product (the centrally designed online course), can and should be
involved in its creation and improvement. This literature-based investigation addresses best practices for working
with adjunct faculty who teach centrally designed online courses in higher education, in order to support
administrators in having a well-considered plan for collaborating with adjunct faculty on course design, which
will contribute to a well-functioning academic program and a successful learning experience for students.
This work will be useful to administrators of online higher education courses, including deans, department and
program chairs, and course coordinators. The overarching research question, “What are the best practices for
fostering effective course design and teaching in centrally designed online courses taught by adjunct faculty?”, is
addressed within the theoretical framework of participative decision-making.
Review of Literature
Course Design
Dubin and Olshtain (1986/2000) describe course design as “the planning of courses and the writing of materials”
(p. 1). “Curriculum development” is a related term, sometimes used interchangeably with “course design”
(Posner & Rudnitsky, 1994). Whetten (2007) refers to the process of “designing ‘significant learning
experiences’” (p. 339), focusing on the selection of learning outcomes, activities, and assessments. Often, a
course designer will not only plan courses and create materials, but also work to measure the effectiveness of
those plans and materials, and make corresponding adjustments.
The closely related term “instructional design” has roots in military training and focuses on analyzing systems to
produce education and training programs through a consistent process (Gustafson & Branch, 2002). Most
modern instructional design models are variations of the ADDIE model, including the five components Analyze,
Design, Develop, Implement, Evaluate (Molenda, 2003). The Evaluate step reflects the iterative nature of the
instructional design process.
In higher education.
There is a high degree of variation in the process for planning and creating courses in higher education. This
activity may be referred to as “course design,” “instructional design,” or simply “planning,” depending on the
person engaging in the activity and the formality of the process. The term “course design” will heretofore be
used to refer to any variation of this process. One way in which the course design process can vary is in the
degree to which it is a centralized activity, controlled by organizational units higher than the individual class
level.
The traditional western college model places much of the course design responsibility in the hands of the
individual instructor (Fyle, Moseley, & Hayes, 2012). In a 1994 briefing paper on faculty work, the Washington
State Higher Education Coordinating Board described faculty teaching work as including not only classroom
instruction, but also design, update, and revision of the courses that they teach. Paris (2013) observed that this
model is now most visible in the liberal arts college. While the instructor may have to work within certain
college-level, department-level, or program-level constraints, he or she typically retains a great deal of latitude in
the selection of course materials, learning activities, and assessments (Paris, 2013). Viewing course design in
terms of the ADDIE model, the instructor is responsible not only for the implementation component, but also for
the analysis, design, development, and evaluation. This approach can be called a decentralized model of course
design.
In a centralized course design model, greater control over and uniformity of materials, activities, and
assessments are imposed at the college, department, or program level. Paris (2013) noted that the centralization
of course design has increased, with “many of the things faculty members used to do—course design, selection
of materials, creation of assignments, and assessment…increasingly being organized by administrators and
specialists” (para. 1).
In distance education.
The provision of a single set of course materials to a large number of students is common in distance education,
with this model used heavily by single-mode distance education institutions before the advent of online learning
(Guri-Rosenblit, 2009). While online learning allows more interaction between teachers and learners than
distance learning based on earlier technologies, the central-course-design model has remained relevant. Callan,
Ewell, Finney, and Jones (2007) cited the UK’s Open University as an example of this model for online learning,
with central design of course content and assessments that are then deployed by multiple teaching faculty. They
noted that full-time faculty perform the design work, and adjunct faculty take on the teaching role
(implementation only), as a cost-saving measure (Callan et al., 2007). This approach can be found in large online
public institutions such as Rio Salado College (Smith, 2007) and private or for-profit institutions such as
University of Phoenix (“The University of Phoenix Way,” 2005).
It is not only full-time faculty who perform the work of centralized design in distance education programs.
Institutions may employ instructional designers to work with faculty on online course design (Berrett, 2016), and
other specialists—including adjuncts—may be involved as well. Bates (2015) emphasized the value of a team
approach to online course design:
It is best to work in a team. Blended and especially fully online learning require a range of skills that
most instructors are unlikely to have. Good course design not only enables students to learn better
but also controls faculty workload. Courses look better with good graphic and web design and
professional video production. Specialist technical help frees up instructors to concentrate on the
knowledge and skills that students need to develop. (“Key Takeaways”)
Cini & Prineas (2016) argued for economies of scale as a reason to employ centralized course design in online
education. They observed the various inefficiencies of de-centralized design, including the ordering of multiple
textbooks and the design of multiple versions of course materials. They also noted that inefficiencies of
decentralized design are magnified in an online environment, where the work of technologists and instructional
designers comes into play. They further argued that decentralized design is accompanied by the risk of an
inconsistent learning model. With centralized design, it is more feasible to ensure that course content is
consistent with established program and course outcomes and that established learning principles inform course
design (Cini & Prineas, 2016).
Adjunct Faculty
As centralized models of course design have taken hold in higher education, particularly in online education, the
use of adjunct faculty for classroom instruction, whether traditional or online, has also increased. The term
“adjunct faculty” is used to describe part-time non-tenure-track faculty (Hoyt, 2012; Magda, Poulin, &
Clinefelter, 2015).
The American Association of University Professors (2017) reported that part-time faculty increased from 24% of
the academic labor force in 1975 to 40% in 2015. In online education, the use of adjuncts has increased as well:
In a 2015 survey of 202 higher education institutions, 56% reported an increase in the number of adjuncts who
taught online only during the preceding year (Magda et al., 2015).
The employment of adjunct faculty leads to challenges that can be considered from the adjunct perspective and
from the institutional perspective. Ultimately, addressing both perspectives is essential for creating a mutually
beneficial employment relationship.
From the adjunct faculty perspective, many of the challenges fall into the category of fair labor practices and
equity among different groups of faculty. Though the availability of precise compensation data is limited, it is
widely acknowledged that adjunct faculty are compensated at lower rates than tenure-track faculty. A GAO
report found that adjunct faculty at public institutions in North Dakota and Ohio are paid, on average, 75% less
per course than full-time tenure-track faculty (United States Government Accountability Office, 2017). The
report also documented disparities in the provision of health benefits, retirement benefits, and employment
stability.
From the institutional perspective, ensuring the high quality of instruction is an essential issue to address.
Despite the many talented and effective teachers in the adjunct labor force, some studies have shown lower
student satisfaction, success, and retention rates in courses taught by adjuncts as compared to those taught by
full-time faculty, whether face-to-face (Eagan & Jaeger, 2008; Jaeger & Hinz, 2008) or online (Mueller,
Mandernach, & Sanderson, 2013). Proposals for improving these measures have included enhanced professional
development, increased opportunities for engagement and participation in the institution and department, and
improved working conditions.
The Compounding Challenges of Managing Online Adjuncts and Centralized Course Design
Both centralized course design and the staffing of adjunct instructors are growing practices that have been used
as cost-saving measures in online multi-section courses. Together, they contribute to a practice of “unbundling”
faculty roles, with one group of faculty designing courses—with “design” used here to refer to the analyze,
design, develop, and evaluate steps—and another (the adjuncts) teaching them. This practice is consistent with
Peters’s (2010) industrial model of distance education, which includes a trend toward division of labor. Peters
(2010) explained that division of labor takes place in distance education when “teaching is divided into several
functions that are assigned to different persons: authors, instructional designers, media specialists, correctors,
tutors, counselors, moderators, evaluators etc.” (p. 15).
Along with any benefits of this division of labor, however, the separation of the teaching role from other typical
faculty activities is accompanied by potential drawbacks. In fact, Peters (2010) went on to comment that the
division of faculty labor “means that the teaching is detached from the original teacher or lecturer, disembodied
and depersonalized” (p. 15). Such detachment includes the risks that the teaching faculty do not have access to
the interaction and professional development that would benefit their job satisfaction and teaching effectiveness,
and that course designers and administrators do not fully benefit from the teaching faculty’s expertise. Indeed,
Senge (2006) has identified increased specialization as a barrier to systems thinking and a potential reason for
suboptimal organizational performance.
Centralized course design, then, has the potential to compound any deficiencies that already exist in the
engagement and participation of adjunct faculty, factors which may contribute to adjunct faculty’s satisfaction
and teaching effectiveness. Furthermore, when adjunct faculty are not involved in the course design, the benefits
of their contributions are lost, potentially resulting in less effective courses than could have been developed with
their input. The detrimental effects of adjunct faculty’s isolation from departmental or program work may be
even further amplified when online adjunct faculty work from geographically remote locations (Dolan, 2011). It
is therefore essential to develop best practices for adjunct faculty participation in the centralized design of the
online courses that they teach.
Participative Decision-Making
Participative decision-making (PDM) refers to employee involvement in decisions relevant to their work.
Numerous studies have demonstrated positive effects of PDM in the workplace, as described in the meta-analysis
by Spector (1986). While PDM can have positive workplace effects in a number of areas, two broad categories
that stand out are employee performance and employee satisfaction.
Bouwmans, Runhaar, Wesselink, and Mulder (2017) considered the effects of PDM on teacher performance by
examining it as a mediator between transformational leadership and team learning. They found that PDM was an
effective tool for transformational leaders to empower teams of teachers, resulting in increased team
commitment, task interdependence, and proactivity.
Turning to job satisfaction, Probst (2005) has shown PDM to be particularly useful to counter the negative
effects of job insecurity. Probst’s research builds on the demand-control model, which predicts that job strain will
increase as job demands increase, and decrease as employee perception of control increases. The study supports
the predicted positive effects of employee perception of control, by showing that PDM increases employee
satisfaction, and in doing so, counters the negative effects of job insecurity on satisfaction (Probst, 2005). This
finding is particularly relevant for adjunct faculty, given that they may experience high levels of job insecurity
due to the contingent nature of their employment.
When implementing PDM, it is important to consider exactly what PDM will entail. Cotton, Vollrath, Froggatt,
Lengnick-Hall, and Jennings (1988) reviewed 91 research studies on the effects of PDM on employee
productivity and satisfaction, and found that PDM is not a unitary concept. They placed studies of PDM into six
categories, based on the level of formality, direct or indirect participation, long-term versus short-term
participation, and degree of access/influence. They found that the effects of PDM on productivity and
satisfaction varied with PDM type. Overall, their findings suggested that PDM that is direct, long-term, and
high-access/influence most strongly support productivity, but that lesser forms of PDM may be sufficient for
employee satisfaction. However, the authors emphasized that various factors can influence the selection and
effectiveness of forms of PDM in particular contexts (Cotton et al., 1988).
Motivation for Current Investigation
Centralized design of online courses and teaching by adjunct faculty are trends that are likely to be sustained in
the coming years. These approaches will be most successful if careful consideration is given to the role of the
adjunct faculty member. Limiting adjunct faculty to implementing course designs over which they have no
influence is likely to result in discontent among faculty. It is easy to see this discontent in the reactions of faculty
organizations that that deny the validity of centralized course design. For example, both the American
Association of University Professors and the Conference on College Communication and Composition have put
out statements claiming the right of teaching faculty to retain control over what and how they teach (American
Association of University Professors, 2013; Conference on College Composition and Communication, 2013).
Neglecting to utilize input from the teaching faculty also risks the loss of valuable insight from those working
“in the trenches.” Collaboration with instructors will result in a stronger instructional strategy.
Despite the need for collaboration with adjunct faculty in course design, little research has been conducted to
determine how this collaboration might best be achieved. In the decentralized liberal arts model, the role of
faculty in course design has been taken for granted: faculty have traditionally held total control over the course
design process. When this status quo is disrupted and teaching faculty no longer control the course design
process, it is necessary to ask what mechanisms can facilitate their effective participation in course design. The
part-time nature of adjunct work, along with the remote nature of online work, place additional constraints on
this determination. This investigation will start by examining recent studies that discuss faculty participation in
the course design process. It will then consider how existing practices might be maintained or modified to meet
the needs of programs with adjunct faculty teaching centrally designed online courses.
Methodology
The current investigation examines existing empirical studies related to faculty participation in course or
curriculum development. Studies for possible inclusion were identified through search of the Educational
Research Information Center (ERIC) database. The initial search included resources from 2014–June 2018
(using the “last 5 years” limiter in ERIC) that included the terms “college faculty” AND “participation” AND
(curriculum OR curricular OR course).
The identified resources were narrowed down through further examination, to identify those that address faculty
participation in course or curriculum development. The selected studies were then analyzed according to the
dimensions identified by Cotton et al. (1988): Do they support (or fail to support) formal or informal
participation? Direct or indirect participation? Long-term or short-term participation? High or low
access/influence?
Finally, the implications of these results were interpreted within the constraints of a program or department
employing adjunct faculty who must teach from a common online course design. Recommended forms of
effective faculty participation in that context are provided.
The remainder of the methodology section explains how the existence of formal/informal, direct/indirect, long-term/
short-term, and high/low access/influence participation was determined in examining the selected studies.
Formal and Informal Participation
Following Dachler and Wilpert (1978), Cotton et al. (1988) identified formal participation as participation that is
institutionalized. It is codified by law or policy and follows a rule system. Informal participation arises in a
spontaneous or grass-roots manner and proceeds without rules. Cotton et al. name casual conversation as an
example of informal participation in the workplace.
In some of the selected studies, reference to committee memberships and participation commitments were taken
as indicators of formal participation. When study authors stated that participation was formal or informal, this
information was also taken into account.
Direct and Indirect Participation
Again citing Dachler and Wilpert (1978), Cotton et al. (1988) described direct participation as that which is
“immediate” and “personal” (p. 9). Indirect participation involves representation. In a corporate context, this
representation might take place through election of a board of directors by employee owners.
For this investigation, the concept of immediate versus repr
Strategies for recruiting people of color professionals: A systematic review of talent pipelines for recruitment in U.S. organizations
No full textManagers at all levels of organizations are responsible for executing diversity strategies. This
dissertation focuses on those strategies that include attracting and hiring people of color for
professional work roles. The ecosystem approach is of particular interest in recruiting strategies. It
includes human capital pipelines (HCP), the practice and process of attracting and recruiting persons
from schools and other sources of talent into professional careers. HCP has a significant influence in
attracting people of color, yet pipelines can lead people of color to have misconceptions about the fit
between their career aspirations and an organization’s culture. These disruptions, called broken and
leaky human capital pipelines, result in a lack of qualified candidates and missed hiring opportunities for
meeting diversity goals. This is where diversity and hiring managers can serve as change agents in
resolving these HCP disruptions, yet they are often underutilized for their expertise. This systematic
review and thematic synthesis of 36 peer-reviewed empirical studies addressed the research question,
what recruitment strategies will increase access to people of color as job candidates for professional
roles in U.S. organizations? The theoretical framework of human capital theory, resource-based theory,
and agency theory provided a basis for the search strategy and collection of research data. Three
themes and five findings emerged from a three-stage open coding process and were the basis for
management recommendations for recruitment strategies for attracting people of color to professional
work roles. Implementation of these strategies could expand the candidate pool and develop equitable
recruiting and selection processes. The recommendations are a guide for managers trying to fix leaky
pipelines: (a) U.S. organizations seeking to hire a diverse workforce would benefit from the development
and maintenance of diversity management strategies, (b) diversity managers can build human capital
pipelines by establishing diverse connections, and (c) diversity managers can develop and execute
training programs on organizational diversity on an ongoing basis. These recommendations will support
the adoption of HCP policies designed to increase the number of people of color as job candidates for
professional roles. They will also aid diversity managers seeking to employ an ecosystem approach to
improve recruitment strategies. Hiring managers will benefit by implementing tools and best practices
during the recruitment process. Finally, scholars and researchers who plan to investigate diversity
recruitment strategies to help fix broken and leaky human capital pipelines could benefit from the
findings in this dissertation.DOCTOR OF BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION
Doctoral candidate: MICHELE WILSON
has completed the dissertation requirements for the Doctor of Business Administration or Doctor of Management Program at the University of Maryland Global Campus (UMGC).
Dissertation Title: STRATEGIES FOR RECRUITING PEOPLE OF COLOR PROFESSIONALS: A SYSTEMATIC REVIEW OF TALENT PIPELINES FOR RECRUITMENT IN U.S. ORGANIZATIONS
Dissertation Defense Committee:
_______________________________ ________________________
Dissertation Mentor (Primary) Date
Dr. DEBORAH WHARFF
________________________________ ________________________
Dissertation Mentor (Secondary) Date
Dr. JOSEPH DRASIN
________________________________ ________________________
Third Committee Member Date
Dr. SAAD LARAQUI
RECRUITING PEOPLE OF COLOR PROFESSIONALS
Abstract
Title of Dissertation:
STRATEGIES FOR RECRUITING PEOPLE OF COLOR PROFESSIONALS: A SYSTEMATIC REVIEW OF TALENT PIPELINES FOR RECRUITMENT IN U.S. ORGANIZATIONS
Michele Wilson,
Doctor of Business Administration, 2021
Managers at all levels of organizations are responsible for executing diversity strategies. This dissertation focuses on those strategies that include attracting and hiring people of color for professional work roles. The ecosystem approach is of particular interest in recruiting strategies. It includes human capital pipelines (HCP), the practice and process of attracting and recruiting persons from schools and other sources of talent into professional careers. HCP has a significant influence in attracting people of color, yet pipelines can lead people of color to have misconceptions about the fit between their career aspirations and an organization’s culture. These disruptions, called broken and leaky human capital pipelines, result in a lack of qualified candidates and missed hiring opportunities for meeting diversity goals. This is where diversity and hiring managers can serve as change agents in resolving these HCP disruptions, yet they are often underutilized for their expertise. This systematic review and thematic synthesis of 36 peer-reviewed empirical studies addressed the research question, what recruitment strategies will increase access to people of color as job candidates for professional roles in U.S. organizations? The theoretical framework of human capital theory, resource-based theory, and agency theory provided a basis for the search strategy and collection of research data. Three RECRUITING PEOPLE OF COLOR PROFESSIONALS
themes and five findings emerged from a three-stage open coding process and were the basis for management recommendations for recruitment strategies for attracting people of color to professional work roles. Implementation of these strategies could expand the candidate pool and develop equitable recruiting and selection processes. The recommendations are a guide for managers trying to fix leaky pipelines: (a) U.S. organizations seeking to hire a diverse workforce would benefit from the development and maintenance of diversity management strategies, (b) diversity managers can build human capital pipelines by establishing diverse connections, and (c) diversity managers can develop and execute training programs on organizational diversity on an ongoing basis. These recommendations will support the adoption of HCP policies designed to increase the number of people of color as job candidates for professional roles. They will also aid diversity managers seeking to employ an ecosystem approach to improve recruitment strategies. Hiring managers will benefit by implementing tools and best practices during the recruitment process. Finally, scholars and researchers who plan to investigate diversity recruitment strategies to help fix broken and leaky human capital pipelines could benefit from the findings in this dissertation.
Keywords: recruitment strategies, human capital pipelines, people of color, ecosystem approach, diversity practices, leaky pipeline, broken pipeline RECRUITING PEOPLE OF COLOR PROFESSIONALS
STRATEGIES FOR RECRUITING PEOPLE OF COLOR PROFESSIONALS: A SYSTEMATIC REVIEW OF TALENT PIPELINES FOR RECRUITMENT IN U.S. ORGANIZATIONS
By
Michele Wilson
Dissertation Advisors:
Dr. Deborah Wharff
Dr. Joseph Drasin
Dissertation submitted to the School of Business,
University of Maryland Global Campus, in partial fulfillment
of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Business Administration
2021
RECRUITING PEOPLE OF COLOR PROFESSIONALS
© Copyright by
[Michele Wilson]
2021 RECRUITING PEOPLE OF COLOR PROFESSIONALS
ii
Dedication
I dedicate my dissertation to my parents and siblings, whose dreams were for us to attain the utmost potential. My only regret is that my parents, Thomas and Merle, and brother, Paul, are not with us to celebrate this accomplishment. My surviving siblings, Juliet, Gary, Carolyn, and Kimberly, always kept me focused and balanced. Your patience, support, encouragement, and sacrifices have not gone unnoticed. To my nieces and nephews, your Aunt Michele will now have time for vacations, chorus performances, dance recitals, and anything else you choose. To Ron, thank you for believing in me, listening to me, and talking me off each ledge. Finally, to Dr. Willie Woolfolk, your words became my mantra throughout this program: “quitting is not an option.”
I am thankful for the support of my extended family and my friends. The check-in text messages, the shortened phone calls, and all the words of encouragement. Your cheers were all heard and appreciated. So, Maria, let our conversations continue; dissertations are completed, but our work will continue.
RECRUITING PEOPLE OF COLOR PROFESSIONALS
iii
Acknowledgments
Achieving this milestone required the sustained guidance and commitment provided by Dr. Deborah Wharff. With Dr. Wharff's super vision this year, we explored so many rabbit holes, identified and pulled through many threads, and unpacked many concepts and ideas. I thank Dr. Wharff for guiding me through these complex paths, culminating in a successful dissertation.
As with most achievements, numerous parties contribute to the overall success. So, I will be remiss not to recognize the contributions of a few other key professionals. First, I thank Dr. Joseph Drasin, whose comments and feedback forced me to dig deeper, searching for a better product. Second, I thank Cynthia Thomes, UMGC librarian whose skills made this possible. Third, I thank Marina Caminis, whose administrative skills made the process straightforward. To my cohort, congratulations, and I offer my sincere gratitude for our bond and support that will be with me always. Finally, to those unnamed, and there were many, I offer my heartfelt thanks.
RECRUITING PEOPLE OF COLOR PROFESSIONALS
iv
Table of Contents
Dedication .................................................................................................................................................... ii
Acknowledgments ....................................................................................................................................... iii
List of Tables ............................................................................................................................................... ix
List of Figures ............................................................................................................................................... x
Chapter 1: Introduction and Overview of the Management Problem ......................................................... 1
Background and Overview ........................................................................................................................ 4
Human Capital Pipelines ....................................................................................................................... 5
The Recruitment Process ...................................................................................................................... 8
Hiring for Diversity ............................................................................................................................... 9
Diversity Management....................................................................................................................... 12
Problem Statement and Significance of the Problem ............................................................................. 14
Purpose of the Study and The Research Question ................................................................................. 16
Rationale for the Study or Significance of the Study .............................................................................. 18
Definitions and Terminology ................................................................................................................... 19
Limitations/Delimitations ....................................................................................................................... 21
Chapter Summary .................................................................................................................................. 21
Organization of the Dissertation ............................................................................................................. 22
Chapter 2: Scoping Literature Review and Theoretical Frame ................................................................... 23
Theoretical Framework ........................................................................................................................... 24
The Human Capital Theory ................................................................................................................. 26
Resource-Based Theory ...................................................................................................................... 29
Agency Theory ................................................................................................................................... 31 RECRUITING PEOPLE OF COLOR PROFESSIONALS
v
The Literature Landscape ........................................................................................................................ 34
Ecosystem, Workforce Diversity, and Human Capital Pipelines ......................................................... 34
Organizational Culture and People of Color Perceptions ................................................................... 39
The Role of Diversity Managers and Hiring Managers ....................................................................... 41
Recruiting with Technology ................................................................................................................ 44
Person-Environment Fit Model ........................................................................................................... 47
Conceptual Framework ........................................................................................................................... 50
Chapter Summary .................................................................................................................................. 51
Chapter 3: Research Design and Methodology .......................................................................................... 53
The Evidence-based Framework ............................................................................................................. 55
Evidence-based Research ................................................................................................................... 55
Evidence-based Practice and Management ....................................................................................... 56
Systematic Reviews ................................................................................................................................ 58
Approach To Systematic Review Research Questions ........................................................................ 60
Search Strategy ...................................................................................................................................... 62
Search Process ................................................................................................................................... 64
Search Results Management .............................................................................................................. 65
Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria .......................................................................................................... 66
Method of Quality Appraisal of the Included Studies ............................................................................. 67
Evaluation Approach ........................................................................................................................... 67
Analysis and Synthesis Method .............................................................................................................. 70
Process of Synthesis ............................................................................................................................ 70
Subject Matter Experts ........................................................................................................................... 71
Chapter Summary .................................................................................................................................. 73 RECRUITING PEOPLE OF COLOR PROFESSIONALS
vi
Chapter 4: Analysis and Findings ................................................................................................................ 74
Review of the Research Question ........................................................................................................... 74
Description of the Data Set ..................................................................................................................... 75
Establishing Final Data Set ...................................................................................................................... 76
Literature Search and Screening Results ............................................................................................ 77
Results of the Quality Appraisal Process ............................................................................................ 77
Final PRISMA Details ........................................................................................................................... 77
Coding and Analysis of Selected Articles ............................................................................................ 79
Results of the Coding Process ............................................................................................................. 79
Findings and Discussion .......................................................................................................................... 80
Theme 1: Successful recruiting of people of color by diversity and hiring managers ........................ 81
Finding 1. Standardized and formalized recruiting strategies and tools are used. ............................ 83
Theme 2: People of color job candidates affected by organizational reputation and culture. .......... 94
Finding 2: Diversity and Hiring Managers Need to be Involved in the Recruitment Process. ............ 97
Finding 3. Employees’ Experiences Shared Externally Affect People of Color Job Seekers. ............ 103
Theme 3: Diversity managers could mend broken and leaky human capital pipelines. .................. 111
Finding 4: Adopting a more robust ecosystem approach to recruitment outreach. ........................ 113
Finding 5: The Pipeline Access to People of Color was Enriched by Mentoring. .............................. 118
Summary of Findings ............................................................................................................................. 120
Theme 1 ........................................................................................................................................... 120
Theme 2 ........................................................................................................................................... 121
Theme 3 ........................................................................................................................................... 123
Revised Conceptual Model ................................................................................................................... 124
Chapter Summary ................................................................................................................................ 126 RECRUITING PEOPLE OF COLOR PROFESSIONALS
vii
Chapter 5: Conclusions and Implications .................................................................................................. 127
Review of the Research ......................................................................................................................... 128
Answer to the Research Question ........................................................................................................ 129
Summary of Findings ............................................................................................................................. 130
Summary of Finding 1 ....................................................................................................................... 130
Summary of Finding 2 ....................................................................................................................... 131
Summary of Finding 3 ....................................................................................................................... 132
Summary of Finding 4 ....................................................................................................................... 132
Summary of Finding 5 ....................................................................................................................... 132
Management Implications and Recommendations .............................................................................. 133
Recommendation 1. Maintain an Effective Diversity Management Recruitment Strategy ............. 133
Recommendation 2. Build Talent Pipelines through an Ecosystem-Approach to Recruiting ........... 137
Recommendation 3. Develop Organizational Diversity Program Training ....................................... 138
Limitations of the Study ........................................................................................................................ 139
Areas for Future Research .................................................................................................................... 140
Final Summary and Conclusion ............................................................................................................. 141
References ............................................................................................................................................... 142
Appendix A Databases Included in UMGC OneSearch Aggregator .....