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Using Second Life in Educational Settings - DE Oracle
No full textDE Oracle @ UMUC
An Online Learning Magazine for UMUC Faculty
Center for Support of Instruction
Using Second Life in Educational Settings
Floyd Csir
Instructional Support Specialist
Center for Support of Instruction
Published: November-December 2009
Category: » Online-pedagogy » Teaching-tools
Second Life (SL) has morphed from an amusing online curiosity with limited appeal to a virtual space
with almost unlimited educational opportunities. Beyond the hype of Second Life, actual learning takes
place. The book "Learning and Teaching in the Virtual World of Second Life" explores the pedagogical
designs and learning projects of SL. International institutions of higher education are well represented
in the twelve chapters written by various contributors from New Zealand, Spain, Italy, United Kingdom,
Norway, Sweden, and the United States. This article examines some of the lessons learned from these
various virtual educators and briefly discusses UMUC's own work with SL.
Best Practices in Second Life
The book's contributors shared a lot of best practices and tips based on the lessons they learned from
working in the SL environment. The list below is a brief summary of just a few of the tips in the book,
both technical and pedagogical:
Itemize what students will need to do before joining SL and attending a class.
Show students where to find the free SL software, indicate whether headsets will be necessary for voice
chat or if text chat be used, and how to locate the actual classroom in SL.
Take a few hours creating an avatar, navigating through the virtual environment, and communicating
with other avatars in SL.
Because low-bandwidth users will not be able to access Second Life, it is important to understand the
connectivity requirements.
Clearly explain SL class session expectations to students prior to the course.
Text chats can be archived in SL, but voice chats cannot be. If voice chats are used, assign one person
to take notes and then save it as a notecard.
Practice using white boards and video players in SL before conducting class sessions.
Plan for technical difficulties during class sessions by explaining what students should do in case their
audio does not work, for example. Alternatives include using Skype and cell phone numbers.
Conduct de-briefing sessions at the end of class sessions to garner student feedback.
Use surveys to gather data about students' SL experience.
Ask an individual student a question because multiple students may respond to your undirected
question all at once.
Courses that require discussion, presentation, and team activities tend to work better in SL than those
that do not employ such methods.
Archiving both private and public written text, with permission, can assist students who may want to
refer to the information later.
Cool Examples of Second Life as a Tool for Learning
The book identified several projects in which SL was used in various disciplines. The following two
examples stood out (you need to have a Second Life account to view the examples):
Using Second Life in Educational Settings - DE Oracle
A project called Virtual Harlem (http://slurl.com/secondlife/Virtual%20Harlem/132/128/30) at the University of
Central Missouri enables students to explore and interact in a replica of Harlem, NY, as it existed in the
1920s Jazz era, which includes the Cotton Club and the Apollo Theater.
In one learning environment dubbed the Digital Humanities Island (http://slurl.com/secondlife
/Digital%20Humanities/186/167/33) , a joint venture by the University of Pisa (Italy) and King's College in
London (UK), students made models of historical buildings, such as the Leaning Tower of Pisa, the
Tower of London, and Galileo's Laboratory. Recreating historical buildings was identified as appealing
projects for students' future employment.
Second Life at UMUC
At UMUC, an SL committee has been charged with constructing an island in SL for educational
purposes. Small and large classrooms have been installed. Trees, birds, and even flowers adorn casual
walkways, which hopefully will encourage small group discussions and meetings. A Welcome Center
greets new visitors. The Effective Writing Center (EWC), with Senior Advisor David Taylor, has a
building with a prominent view. The EWC will be moving in shortly. You can catch a glimpse of what the
island looks like in the screenshots below:
We're very excited about the possibilities of using SL at UMUC Island, and the tips and ideas mentioned
earlier will prove helpful when faculty and staff begin using SL to further enhance teaching and
learning. The UMUC Island is expected to be completed by early 2010. Currently, faculty and staff of
the Center for Support of Instruction (CSI) are putting the final touches to the island. Additional faculty
involvement in the project is welcome; please contact Garth Gerstein, Assistant Director for CSI, at
[email protected] (mailto:[email protected]) if you are interested in participating.
References
Molka-Danielsen, J., & Deutschmann, M. (Eds.) (2009). Learning and teaching in the virtual world of
Second Life. Trondheim, Norway: Tapir Academic Press.
About the Author(s)
Floyd Csir enjoys collaborating with colleagues on a variety of instructional technology projects that help students, faculty,
and staff reach their goals. He joined the CSI staff in August 2009 as an Instructional Support Specialist.
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Leadership development using online group executive coaching
No full textAbstract: Leadership development initiatives in work settings or in executive MBA programs can use online technology to make executive coaching available to a large number of managers. Previously, the integration of classroom training and challenging work assignments into expanded leadership capability has been facilitated by individual executive coaching or mentoring. This limited the number of potential participants who could access these resources. Now, research on online behavioral interventions suggest that group online executive coaching could be a method of expanding effective leadership development programs to a larger number of participants. This paper presents a model of online executive coaching that integrates findings from leadership research, outcome evaluations of group leadership training programs, research on online behavioral interventions, and the literature on executive coaching.UMUC Working Paper Series – Number 2009-007
Leadership Development Using Online Group Executive Coaching
By
Bernard L. Brookes
Graduate School of Management and Technology
[email protected]
January, 2009
UMUC Working Paper Series – Number 2009-007
Leadership Development Using Online Group Executive Coaching
Abstract
Leadership development initiatives in work settings or in executive MBA programs can use
online technology to make executive coaching available to a large number of managers.
Previously, the integration of classroom training and challenging work assignments into
expanded leadership capability has been facilitated by individual executive coaching or
mentoring. This limited the number of potential participants who could access these resources.
Now, research on online behavioral interventions suggest that group online executive coaching
could be a method of expanding effective leadership development programs to a larger number
of participants. This paper presents a model of online executive coaching that integrates findings
from leadership research, outcome evaluations of group leadership training programs, research
on online behavioral interventions, and the literature on executive coaching.
Key Words: executive coaching, leadership development, online behavioral interventions
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Introduction
Leadership matters more than ever. Global economic, demographic and cultural changes
currently in progress are creating challenges and opportunities that require new ways of thinking.
For example, projected resource utilization and environmental effects of the booming economies
of China and India, when added to those of developed economies, suggest that new business
models will be necessary to sustain global economic growth in the 21st century. In their 1999
book Natural Capitalism: Creating the Next Industrial Revolution, Paul Hawken, Amory B.
Lovins, and L. Hunter Lovins explore the kind of creative strategic thinking that is required in
the 21st century. As auto production, for example, creates about twenty-two thousand pounds of
waste materials for each two thousand pound car, one could well argue that the biggest product
of our industrialized economies is waste. With the concept of waste equals food, Hawkins and
his colleagues show how basic concepts of design and manufacturing must be rethought. In
nature, waste equals food because all of the output from each process is used.
William McDonough & Michael Braungart 2002 book Cradle to Cradle/Remaking the
Way We Make Things, demonstrate with large scale projects in the real world, that products can
be designed to yield cost savings, while becoming a net positive for the environment. Examples
include a two billion dollar plant designed for Ford, and projects with Nike, the Chinese
government, Herman Miller and others.
Business, governmental, and nonprofit leadership will need to perceive and pursue those
opportunities, and to help solve these and other challenges to human survival and continued
development. Benis (2007) describes leadership as one of the four major threats to world
stability, as well as one of the essential solutions. I complete this article on the day following the
inauguration Barack Obama as the 44th president of the United States, and the first African
American to hold that position; amid a national and global financial crisis as well as a crisis of
hope and confidence. He speaks, and appears to have been chosen, as a transformational leader
for this time, when a historical shift in the way the world deals with economic, ecological,
cultural and other critical challenges is occurring.
There is no denying the importance of the individual leader who occupies the top position
with formal power and influence; particularly during a crisis. But the visibility of that individual
often obscures the fact that his or her success depends on many others taking the initiative;
including both those with formal leadership responsibilities, and those without. Success also
requires that formal leaders learn to listen and to follow, as well as to lead. Therefore leadership
and followership are roles that shift dynamically in a complex system of interactions among
individuals, groups and contexts.
In leadership development, there is a tendency to focus on individual skills and
characteristics; including how the individual functions within the context of a team or larger
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organizational unit. This may be the result of custom and habit, as well as what is most easily
done. Leadership development initiatives might be more successful if we can incorporate more
of the complex interactions that exist in reality. This article examines how executive coaching in
an online group format can be used for leadership development in a corporation, or in a
university based executive development program.
To lay the empirical and theoretical foundation for this approach to leadership
development, I will first summarize what we know about effective leadership. Then I will
examine executive coaching as a method of leadership development. Following this, I will
review group approaches to leadership development, and electronic communications and
leadership development. Finally, I will describe what an online executive coaching program
should look like given the previous reviews.
What Is It That We Develop In Leadership Development?
Research has demonstrated that leadership effectiveness is impacted by personality
characteristics, situational variables, and the interaction among them (Avolio, 2007, Bennis,
2007, Hackman, J.R. & Wageman, R. , 2007, Sternberg, 2007, Northouse, 2007, Vroom, 2007,
and Zaccaro, 2007). Leadership education should therefore focus on improving the individual’s
knowledge about, and ability to manage effectively, his/her own approaches to working with
others in a variety of situations. It should hopefully also help the individual to select situations in
which he or she is likely to be most effective.
As Hogan & Kaiser (2005, p.2) state, “…leadership primarily concerns building and
maintaining effective teams: persuading people to give up, for a while, their selfish pursuits and
pursue a common goal.” This conception of leadership is clarified in transformational-transactional
leadership theory. Transformational-transactional leadership theory has received a
substantial amount of support in the research literature over the past 20 years, and is the most
frequently studied conceptualization of leadership (Judge & Piccolo, 2004). Transformational
leadership includes four dimensions: idealized influence (charisma), inspirational motivation,
intellectual stimulation, and individualized consideration. The three dimensions of transactional
leadership are contingent reward, passive management by exception, and active management by
exception.
In their meta-analysis of 87 studies conducted prior to 2003, Judge & Piccolo (2004)
found that transformational leadership and one component of transactional leadership (contingent
reward) had high levels of validity. They also found that transformational leadership and
contingent reward had positive and significant correlations with follower job satisfaction,
follower satisfaction with leader, follower motivation, leader job performance, and leader
effectiveness.
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There is also an implicit ethical dimension to transformational-transactional leadership
that needs to be made explicit. An essential part what makes transformational-transactional
leadership effective appears to be the creation of a sense of trust and perceived justice. In a meta-analysis
of 106 studies on leadership and trust, Dirks & Ferrin (2002) found trust to be highly
correlated with transformation and transactional leadership, and with distributive, procedural,
and interactional justice.
We know something else about the characteristics and behavior of effective leaders.
Personality predicts leadership emergence and effectiveness (Hogan & Kaiser, 2005). The Five
Factor Model of personality (Big Five) “...brings together over 40 years of research on the
emotional, interpersonal, experiential, attitudinal, and motivational style of an individual (Zhao
& Seibert, 2006 p. 2). The Big Five traits are emotional stability (neuroticism), extraversion,
openness to experience, agreeableness, and conscientiousness. Judge, Bono, Llies, & Gerhardt
(2002) performed a meta-analysis of 78 studies conducted between 1967 and 1998, examining
the relationship between Big Five traits and leadership. Extraversion was most strongly and
positively associated with effective leadership, followed in diminishing strength by
conscientiousness and openness to experience. Neuroticism was negatively related to leadership
effectiveness at a level of strength similar to openness to experience.
While still relatively new, emotional intelligence (EI) also appears to be a useful
construct in determining leadership ability. In a meta-analytic review, Van Rooy, Viswesvaran &
Pluta (2005) concluded that the ability model of EI developed by Mayer, Salovey, and Caruso
(1999) has been more successful at measuring something distinct from Big Five traits, than has
the mixed models of Goleman (1995) and Bar-On (1997). However, Van Rooy et al. (2005) also
conclude that both types of models of EI appear to have some validity and utility. The Mayer-
Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEIT) has demonstrated reasonable reliability
(Mayer et al., 2003). The MSCEIT has four dimensions: 1) perceiving emotions accurately, 2)
using emotions to facilitate thought, 3) understanding emotion, and 4) managing emotion.
With the growing globalization of economic and political activity, one of the biggest
questions since Hofstede’s (1980) ground-breaking book is the relationship between culture and
leadership. A massive research program called Project GLOBE, involving 170 social scientists
from 61 cultures throughout the world, sought to clarify this relationship building on and
extending Hofstede’s work ( House, Javidan & Dorfman, 2001, Javidan & House, 2001). Project
GLOBE found that countries vary considerably in the extent to which their populations value
assertiveness, a future orientation, gender differentiation, uncertainty avoidance, power distance,
individualism/collectivism, a performance orientation, and a humanitarian orientation (Javidan &
House, 2001).
In contrast to the cross-cultural differences noted above, Project GLOBE also identified
21 leader attributes universally associated with effective leadership (House et al., 2004) Eight of
these attributes are about inspirational and visionary leader attributes; three consist of being
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trustworthy, just and honest; four are related to team work and communications skills; and others
include an excellence orientation, decisiveness, intelligence, administratively skill, and
diplomatic skill. These characteristics are to a large extent consistent with the transformation-transactional
leadership, Big Five personality traits, and emotional intelligence factors discussed
previously. These two sets of results indicate that global leadership development can be based on
the core research on leadership, but must also be cognizant of the variation that does exist across
cultures.
While leadership research is heavily weighted toward studying the characteristics of
leaders, it is generally acknowledged that the reality is more like a system in which leaders,
followers and contexts interact in a complex manner. In summarizing contributions to the
American Psychologist special issue on leadership, Hackman & Wageman (2007, pp. 43-45)
proposed four right questions to ask about leadership:
1. Not do leaders make a difference, but under what conditions does leadership matter?
2. Not what are the traits of leaders, but how do leaders’ personal attributes interact with
situational properties to shape outcomes?
3. Not do there exist common dimensions on which all leaders can be arrayed, but are
good and poor leadership qualitatively different phenomena?
4. Not how do leaders and followers differ, but how can leadership models be reframed
so they treat all system members as both leaders and followers?
Executive Coaching As a Method for Leadership Development
The easy part of leadership education is academic: teaching about the relevant tools,
concepts, history, and research results. The more difficult part is leadership development per se;
facilitating changes in attitudes and behavior to more closely approximate those associated with
effective leadership. Since ancient times, it has been known that the development of skill,
whether in philosophy, science, art or craft is best done through an ongoing relationship. Today,
we label those learning relationships as coaching or mentoring. The focus here is on coaching.
Kilburg’s 1996 working definition of executive coaching still seems quite applicable
today:
“..executive coaching is defined as a helping relationship formed between a client who has managerial
authority and responsibility in an organization and a consultant who uses a wide variety of behavioral techniques
and methods to help the client achieve a mutually identified set of goals to improve his or her professional
performance and personal satisfaction and, consequently, to improve the effectiveness of the client's organization
within a formally defined coaching agreement.” (Kilburg, 1996, p. 8)
In the same article, Kilburg defined three foci of organizational consultation, and the particular
emphasis that distinguishes executive coaching from other consultations. The three foci are the
individual executive (executive focus), the organizational systems (system focus) and the
relationships and behavioral factors that mediate between executive and system (mediated
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focus). Kilburg conceptualized executive coaching as dealing primarily with the executive focus,
and delving into the other two foci only as they relate to helping the individual to function better
within the organization.
Kampa-Kokesch & Anderson (2001) provided a comprehensive review of the literature
on executive coaching. They found only seven empirical studies of executive coaching, as the
literature consisted primarily of practice-based reports on individual cases, and conceptual
discussions. Five ideas found support in their reviews of both empirical and practice-based
literatures:
1. Executive coaching helped both the executive and the company.
2. Increased learning occurred in executive coaching.
3. Behavioral changes also occurred in executive coaching.
4. Ninety percent of executive coaches had master’s degrees in business or social
science.
5. Executive coaches use a variety of approaches (from behavioral to
psychodynamic); but all also use 360 degree assessments of some kind.
Executive coaching applies any of the techniques and concepts that have are effective in
changing self-awareness and emotional and interpersonal skills to the specific task of helping
leaders to become more effective. The most extensively used and well developed models for
executive coaching come from the systems and psychodynamic approaches that were previously
developed for family and individual psychotherapy (Ducharme, 2004; Kilburg, 1996, 2004).
Systems interventions assume that problem symptoms exhibited by an individual, are actually
the result of dysfunction in the relationships within the family or other group system of which
that individual is a part. Psychodynamic approaches assume the individual has incorporated a
lifetime of interpersonal relations and conflicts into mental, emotional and behavioral patterns,
some of which are maladaptive. The therapist helps the person to bring the sources of conflict
into awareness and resolve them. We also know that that there is a body of research
demonstrating effective methods of improving emotional self-management and relationships
using cognitive behavior therapy (Burns, 1999). Cognitive behavior therapy is based on the idea
that emotions are reactions to thoughts (cognitions). The final major approach to psychotherapy
is the humanistic/existential approaches, which focus on helping a person to clarify values by
viewing her with unconditional positive regard.
Just as most psychotherapists use a mix of different techniques, executive coaches do not
hesitate to use an eclectic approach, applying whichever techniques are most useful to the
particular situation. In addition to therapeutic techniques, the executive coach will benefit from
keeping in mind issues related to adult development (Axelrod, 2005). Intensive long term case
studies of men and women from management and other careers demonstrate patterns of adult
development that effect both work and personal lives (Levinson, 1996, Levinson et al., 1978).
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While using techniques and concepts from psychotherapy, executive coaching differs
from therapy in focusing on issues directly related to leadership performance. Hart, Blattner &
Leipsic (2001) conducted interviews of thirty masters’ and doctoral degreed professionals
experienced in the practice of both coaching and therapy. Participants described coaching as
more “…goal directed, action based, and outwardly defined” and as a more co-creative process
than therapy (Hart et al., 2001, p. 7). Quick and Macik-Frey (2004 p. 6) also distinguished
coaching even when focused on deep interpersonal communication from psychotherapy; the goal
being to get behind the mask and help “...an authentic person to become an authentic leader…”
Executive coaches usually also have the benefit of obtaining assessments of the client
from organizational superiors, peers, and subordinates, in addition to self-assessments. This
facilitates a more limited and goal directed process than in psychotherapy. Executive coaches
also need to be well-versed in business, political and leadership issues in addition to techniques
for emotional, behavioral and interpersonal change (Kampa-Kokesch & Anderson, 2001).
Executive coaching is usually described as a one-to-one process; one person being
coached by one professional. However, when considering coaching as part of leadership
education and development, a team approach is probably more practical, and also more
consistent with our increased understanding of leadership as occurring in the context of team
work (Cohen & Bailey, 1997, Riggio et al., 2003).
Group Approaches to Leadership Development
In contrast to the mostly anecdotal nature of the literature on executive coaching, there is
a substantial body of empirical research on the effectiveness of group approaches to leadership
and management development. Collins & Holton (2004) conducted a meta-analysis of 83 studies
of managerial and leadership development programs from 1982 to 2001. Their results showed
that managerial and leadership development programs were effective in increasing knowledge,
expertise and system outcomes. This confirmed the overall finding of training effectiveness
reported in an earlier meta-analysis (Burke & Day, 1986).
The types of interventions used in the studies analyzed by Collins & Holton (2004, p.224)
were categorized as: “…problem solving and decision making; strategic stewardship; employee
performance; human relations; job and work design; and general management.” In the Burke &
Day (1986) meta-analysis, the training content were categorized as general management
programs, human relations/leadership programs, self-awareness programs, problem
solving/decision-making programs, rater training programs, and motivation/values training
programs.
In developing a group executive coaching program, we seek to incorporate some aspects
of executive coaching, such as 360 degree feedback, into leadership training with a small group
of about five executives from different companies. In the context of an Executive MBA program
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or a corporate leadership development program, it seems reasonable to utilize the demonstrated
effectiveness of group leadership training to create a more personalized development experience
with some of the techniques of executive coaching. However, we aim to go o
How to get published: An editor’s perspective
No full textUMUC Orkand Chair of Management and Technology, Jay Liebowitz, provided his perspective as an editor of an academic journal on the best ways to effectively work with editors and get published. He covered topics including: o Publish or perish o Why publish? o From the editor's experience o Questions you should ask o Games people play o Perseverance pays off1
How to Get Published: An Editor’s Perspective
Jay Liebowitz, D.Sc.
Orkand Chair of Management and Technology
UMUC
September 20092Publish or Perish?[Robert Day, How to Write & Publish a Scientific Paper, 5thed., 1998]
•A scientific experiment is not complete until the results have been published
•Publication in scientific literature serves as a means to secure knowledge ownership claims and is an efficient vehicle for communicating this knowledge
•“No publications, no funds; no funds, no job”3Why Publish?
•Gain recognition
•Improve society
•Increase the state-of-the-art
•Make evolutionary or even revolutionary changes
•Instill creativity (Labor of Love)
•Get tenure (publish or perish?)4Thomson ISI Master Journal List
•About 9,000 journals
•Top 2 reasons for manuscript rejection:
–Flawed or poorly planned study design
–Lack of detail in methods
[D. Byrne, “Common reasons for rejecting manuscripts for medical journals: a survey of editors and peer reviewers,” Science Editor, 2000]5
ISI Essential Science Indicators Tutorial (http://scientific.thomsonreuters.com/tutorials/esi/index.html)6My Editor’s Experience
•Founding and Current Editor-in-Chief, Expert Systems With Applications: An Int. Journal (Elsevier); entering Vol. 37; 1,600 paper downloads per day worldwide last year; 2008 Impact Factor: 2.596
•Associate Editor, Int. Journal of Teaching and Case Studies (Inderscience)
•Former Series Editor, Pergamon Press/Elsevier CS-related journals
•Former Associate Editor, Telematics and Informatics: An Int. Journal (Elsevier)
•Former Founding Editor-in-Chief, Failure & Lessons Learned in IT Management: An Int. Journal (Cognizant Communication Corp.)7
Questions You Should Ask
•Is this journal peer-reviewed?
•Is this a prestigious journal?
•Who is this journal’s audience?
•What is the acceptance rate of the journal?
•What type of papers and research methods are most applicable for this journal?
•How long does it take to get through the review process?8What Do I Look for as a Journal Editor?
•Fits within the aims and scope of the journal
•Follows manuscript guidelines
•Well-written
•The research provides a significant contribution to the existing literature
•Thorough literature review (with most recent references in the field) and appropriate research methods employed
•Detailed analysis, discussions, and conclusions
•Lessons learned, limitations, and future work9The Games People Play
•Sometimes the same manuscripts are submitted to more than one journal at the same time (A BIG “NO-NO”)
•Citation analysis, impact factors, abstract/indexing services are all important, BUT many journals play the game that to be published, you must also cite published papers from that journal (i.e., increases the impact factors/citations cited)10
Journal Article Rejection(Chronicle of Higher Education)
•“I am a full professor at Mediocre Big U. and I have had lots of articles published and lots rejected. I share your pain at the rejection of your article. Recently, I had to have a good cry when an article I sent to Leading Journal in the Fieldwas rejected without review. I mean, you think you’ve got it bad. Think how I feel! My article was not even sent out for review…The solution? After a good cry, I sent the piece out to Leading Journal in Another Subfield, and they have sent it out for review. The moral is to never trust one journal’s opinion.”11Failure Breeds Success(Sir Winston Churchill)
•A pessimist finds the difficulty in opportunities, and the optimist finds the opportunity in difficulties
•The optimist finds the success between the failures12Books
•Labor of love: “Only about 1 in 20 books ever makes a profit, and the shelf life of the average trade book is less than 6 months” (Sean Groom, “How to Get Published,” Washington Lawyer, Dec. 2003)
•IT books also have a limited shelf life (usually 3 years)
•It appears the more technical the book, the more limited the market13
My Heuristics for Books
•Write a detailed book proposal
•Get the book signed off first with a publisher
•Takes me 2 years to single-author a book; 1 year to edit a book
•Refereed journal articles usually take precedence over books
•Have a set day (full day, morning, or afternoon) each week for writing and research (no scheduled meetings or interruptions) 14Possible Journals
•The American Journal of Distance Education (Taylor & Francis)
•Educational Technology & Society (IEEE/et al.)
•Educational Technology Review (AACE)
•International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning (Athabasca U.)
•Journal of Distance Education (Canadian Association for Distance Education)
•Myriad of discipline-related journals15Summary
•Sign onto an EBSCO Alert through the Library to get latest articles in your research area sent to you each week
•Do your homework!
•Perseverance will get you far
•Set goals and objectives
•Expand your network
•Think “continuous improvement” (Working paper, conference paper, journal article)
•Don’t be discouraged (think positive
Relationship between supply chain management practices and supply chain efficiency indicators
No full textThis study uses firm data survey responses aggregated to the industry level for 30 industries,
from 2001 to 2007, to determine if specific supply chain management practices can be identified
as having a significant effect on supply chain efficiency, as measured by two proxy variables.
Two multiple least squares regression models are estimated to determine the relationship
between: the average annual spending on training per procurement employee, the percent of
procurement spending via e-activities, the percent of procurement spending via strategic
alliances, and the total procurement spending per procurement employee and the cost reduction
as a percent of procurement spending. The findings show that spending via strategic alliances
improved both supply chain efficiency indicators, the total procurement spending per
procurement employee and the cost reduction as a percent of procurement spending. However,
the results for spending on training and spending via E-Activities were mixed in their effect on
the two supply chain efficiency indicators. The greater the industry average annual spending on
training per procurement employee, the larger the total procurement spending per procurement
employee resulting in greater efficiency per procurement employee (and the potential need for
fewer employees) and the smaller the cost reduction as percent of total procurement spending
resulting in less efficiency. The larger the proportion of industry electronic data interchanges,
the lower the procurement spending per procurement employee resulting in less efficiency per
procurement employee and the greater the cost reduction as percent of total procurement
spending resulting in greater efficiency. This study provides evidentiary reasoning to supply
chain managers to use in the competitive distribution of total firm resources. In developing the
supply chain management strategy, resources will be utilized to the fullest advantage when
allocated to the supply chain management practices that have the greatest impact on efficiency.
During the planning process supply chain managers can more effectively make a case for a
3
greater share of corporate resources if they can provide evidence that particular supply chain
practices have been shown to enhance the supply chain’s efficiency. The extant literature has not
fully developed the connection between strategic planning, supply chain practices, and supply
chain efficiency. This study serves to address that research gap.1
ABSTRACT
THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SUPPLY
CHAIN MANAGEMENT PRACTICES AND
SUPPLY CHAIN EFFICIENCY
INDICATORS
Kathie Jean Shaffer
Doctor of Management Candidate
Graduate School of Management and
Technology
University of Maryland University College
May 2009
2
This study uses firm data survey responses aggregated to the industry level for 30 industries,
from 2001 to 2007, to determine if specific supply chain management practices can be identified
as having a significant effect on supply chain efficiency, as measured by two proxy variables.
Two multiple least squares regression models are estimated to determine the relationship
between: the average annual spending on training per procurement employee, the percent of
procurement spending via e-activities, the percent of procurement spending via strategic
alliances, and the total procurement spending per procurement employee and the cost reduction
as a percent of procurement spending. The findings show that spending via strategic alliances
improved both supply chain efficiency indicators, the total procurement spending per
procurement employee and the cost reduction as a percent of procurement spending. However,
the results for spending on training and spending via E-Activities were mixed in their effect on
the two supply chain efficiency indicators. The greater the industry average annual spending on
training per procurement employee, the larger the total procurement spending per procurement
employee resulting in greater efficiency per procurement employee (and the potential need for
fewer employees) and the smaller the cost reduction as percent of total procurement spending
resulting in less efficiency. The larger the proportion of industry electronic data interchanges,
the lower the procurement spending per procurement employee resulting in less efficiency per
procurement employee and the greater the cost reduction as percent of total procurement
spending resulting in greater efficiency. This study provides evidentiary reasoning to supply
chain managers to use in the competitive distribution of total firm resources. In developing the
supply chain management strategy, resources will be utilized to the fullest advantage when
allocated to the supply chain management practices that have the greatest impact on efficiency.
During the planning process supply chain managers can more effectively make a case for a
3
greater share of corporate resources if they can provide evidence that particular supply chain
practices have been shown to enhance the supply chain’s efficiency. The extant literature has not
fully developed the connection between strategic planning, supply chain practices, and supply
chain efficiency. This study serves to address that research gap.
Key Words:
Supply chain management strategy, supply chain efficiency, resource allocation
4
THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SUPPLY CHAIN MANAGEMENT PRACTICES
AND SUPPLY CHAIN EFFICIENCY INDICATORS
By
Kathie Jean Shaffer
Dissertation submitted to the Faculty of the Graduate School of the
University of Maryland University College, in partial fulfillment
of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Management
2009
Advisory Committee:
Dr. Thomas J. Mierzwa, Chair
Dr. Garth MacKenzie
Dr. Stella Porto
Dr. Donald Henley
5
© Copyright by
Kathie Jean Shaffer
2009
6
Dedication
I dedicate this dissertation to:
the loving memory of my parents, Guy and Dorothea Shaffer.
Even though my parents were not privileged enough to enjoy higher education they emphasized
its importance and their hard work paved the way for my accomplishments.
I wish you were here to celebrate this occasion.
my sister and my friend, Bonnie Shaffer Lockard, who encouraged me through this long, arduous
process, always having a kind word of support.
I am so grateful you are here to celebrate this occasion.
my beautiful daughter, Cindy-Beth Carter.
Who only through a miracle is here to celebrate this occasion.
my son, Travis C. Wilson.
Shaaaaa, I am still sitting here.
I am so grateful that you are my friend.
7
Acknowledgements
I would like to thank Dr. Thomas J. Mierzwa, my dissertation chair and the members of
my committee, Dr. Garth MacKenzie, Dr. Stella Porto and Dr. Donald Henley of the Graduate
School of Management and Technology, University of Maryland University College, for your
patience, guidance and dedication to the learning process. I am grateful for the knowledge that
you have shared and the new paths that you have uncovered for me.
Thank you to the researchers at the Center for Advancing Purchasing Studies (CAPS)
from the Institute for Supply Management, ISM, without whose help this dissertation would not
have been possible. Thank you:
• Rick Boyle, Director of Corporate Sponsorship/Operations, CAPS Research
• D. Steven Wade, Director of Benchmarking and Marketing Programs
• Kristin Theis, Manager of Benchmarking Programs
A special thank you to my friend, colleague and proofreader, Dr. Peggy Dalton, Professor,
Frostburg State University: I admire your sharp intellect and your dedication to your work. Your
work ethic is matched by very few. I am truly grateful for all that you have taught me.
Thank you to my friend, colleague and editor, Dr. Keith Schlegel, Professor Emeritus of
English, Frostburg State University: Thank you so much!
8
Thank you to my friends who encouraged and encouraged and encouraged, sincerely
hoping for my success and always extending their kindness:
Daniel M. Plucinski, CPA, JD, Professor,
Frostburg State University, Frostburg, Maryland
Dr. Ahmad Tootoonchi,
Dean of the College of Business, Frostburg State University, Frostburg, Maryland
Carolyn M. Wolfe,
Administrative Assistant, Frostburg State University, Frostburg, Maryland
"We cannot tell the precise moment when friendship is formed. As in filling a vessel drop by
drop, there is at last a drop that makes it run over; so in a series of kindness, there is a last one
that makes the heart run over."
--Samuel Johnson (1709-1784), English Author
9
Table of Contents
Dedication ...................................................................................................................................... 6
Acknowledgements ......................................................................................................................... 7
List of Figures ............................................................................................................................... 11
List of Tables ............................................................................................................................... 12
Chapter 1: Introduction and Research Problem ............................................................................ 13
The Supply Chain Context ........................................................................................................ 13
Understanding the Supply Chain .............................................................................................. 15
Problems of Supply Chain Practices and Supply Chain Efficiency ..................................... 18
The Research Opportunity ........................................................................................................ 20
Research Question .................................................................................................................... 22
Expected Contribution of Research .......................................................................................... 23
Dissertation Chapters ................................................................................................................ 24
Chapter 2: Literature Review ........................................................................................................ 26
Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 26
Significance of Benchmarking in Supply Chain Management ................................................. 26
The Theoretical Domain of Supply Chain Management .......................................................... 36
Principal-Agent Theory ........................................................................................................ 37
Resource Based View ........................................................................................................... 43
Network Theory .................................................................................................................... 44
Supply Chain Management Domain Summary .................................................................... 46
Viewing the Supply Chain as a Model ..................................................................................... 47
The Supply Chain Objectives ............................................................................................... 48
The Competitive Environment of the Supply Chain................................................................. 51
Supply Chain Efficiency ........................................................................................................... 55
The Supply Chain and Procurement Employee Training ..................................................... 67
The Supply Chain and Strategic Alliances ........................................................................... 69
The Supply Chain and E-Commerce .................................................................................... 75
Literature Review Summary ..................................................................................................... 79
Chapter 3: Conceptual Framework and Hypotheses Development .............................................. 82
Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 82
Explanation of the Conceptual Framework .............................................................................. 82
The Supply Chain Activities and Practices ............................................................................... 86
Independent Variables .......................................................................................................... 86
Dependent Variables ............................................................................................................. 88
Hypotheses Development ......................................................................................................... 89
Chapter 4: Research Approach ..................................................................................................... 93
Introduction and Research Objective ........................................................................................ 93
Research design ........................................................................................................................ 94
Data Sources ......................................................................................................................... 94
Scope of Industries ................................................................................................................ 97
Quality of the data ..................................................................................................................... 99
Threats to Validity .................................................................................................................... 99
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Chapter 5: Data Analysis and Discussion of Results .................................................................. 102
Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 102
Data Analysis .......................................................................................................................... 102
Descriptive Statistics ........................................................................................................... 102
Correlation Matrices ........................................................................................................... 104
Regression Results .............................................................................................................. 107
Discussion of the Findings ...................................................................................................... 111
Average Annual Spending on Training per Procurement Employee.................................. 111
Percent of Industry Procurement Spending via Electronic Data Interchange ..................... 112
Percent of Industry Procurement Spending via Strategic Alliances ................................... 114
Summary of Research Results ................................................................................................ 115
Chapter 6: Managerial Implications and Recommendations for Future Study .......................... 118
Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 118
Managerial Implications ......................................................................................................... 119
Managerial Implications for Spending on Training per Procurement Employee ............... 120
Managerial Implications for Spending via E-Activities ..................................................... 122
Managerial Implications for Spending via Strategic Alliances .......................................... 125
Limitations of the Study.......................................................................................................... 126
Recommendations for Future Research .................................................................................. 127
Concluding Note ..................................................................................................................... 129
References .................................................................................................................................. 131
Appendix A CAPS Research Industry Classifications ........................................................... 142
Appendix B 2005 Supply Management Performance Benchmarking Report ........................ 146
11
List of Figures
Figure 1. The Supply Chain Interaction - Product and Information Flow Involving .................. 15
Figure 2. “Plan-Do-Check-Act” (PDCA) Cycle of the Benchmarking Process .......................... 29
Figure 3. Conceptual Model for Collaborative Relationships ...................................................... 38
Figure 4. Evolution of Supply Chain Management from Previously Disparate Functions .......... 48
Figure 5. Operational Efficiency versus Strategic Positioning .................................................... 50
Figure 6. Supply Chain Efficiency and Supply Chain Capabilities – A Measurement Model ... 59
Figure 7. Supplier Selection Criteria and Supplier Involvement ................................................ 73
Figure 8. Conceptual Framework for Supply Chain Management.............................................. 85
Figure 9. Relationships between the Variables, Propositions and Hypotheses ........................... 92
Figure 10. Data Flow from CAPS Research during One Time Period ....................................... 97
12
List of Tables
Table 1. Adaptation of the Gattorna and Walters’ Model ........................................................... 62
Table 2. Industries’ Surveyed in this Study .................................................................................. 98
Table 3. Descriptive Statistics Including (Y1) and (Y2) from 2001-2007 ................................... 103
Table 4. Correlation Matrix Y1 ................................................................................................. 105
Table 5. Correlation Matrix Y2 .................................................................................................. 106
Table 6. Regression Results Y1 - Procurement Spending per Procurement Employee .............. 107
Table 7. Regression Results Y2 - Cost Reduction as Percent of Total Procurement Spending .. 109
Table 8. Summary of Research Results ...................................................................................... 116
13
Chapter 1: Introduction and Research Problem
The Supply Chain Context
Forrester (1958) claimed that decisions, policies, organizational forms, and investment
choices will be affected by the interaction and fluctuations of the companies’ flows of
information, materials, money, manpower, and capital equipment. He argued that system
dynamics can influence the effectiveness of functions such as research, engineering, sales, and
promotion because these functions are highly interconnected within an organization. Using a
computer simulation of order information flow, Forrester illustrated the influence on the
production and distribution performance for each supply chain member, as well as an entire
supply chain system. He predicted that after the development of more sophisticated analytic
techniques, "there will come general recognition of the advantage enjoyed by the pioneering
management who have been the first to improve their understanding of the interrelationships
between separate company functions and between the company and its markets, its industry, and
the national economy" (p.107).
Thus, five decades ago, Forrester (1958) was describing the corporate role that “supply
chain management” (SCM) would eventually play. Reaffirming Forrester’s earlier conclusions
regarding the need to understand the chain of interrelationships involved in corporate
transactions, Cooper, Ellram, Gardner, and Hanks (1997) refer to SCM and emphasize the
development of an integrative company management philosophy used to assist in managing the
“total flow of a channel from earliest supplier of raw materials to the ultimate customer, and
beyond, including the disposal process” (p.68).
14
Definitions of SCM vary across the literature (see for example, Lummus, Krumwiede, &
Vokurka, 2001), and range from relatively narrow views to the exceptionally broad. As an
example of the former, according to Vickery, Jayaram, Droge and Calantone (2003), SCM is
described as the “strategic management of individual firms as a single entity in order to bring a
product or service to the market” (p. 533). At the broader level, Blackstone and Cox (2008) offer
the following definition: The design, planning, executions, control, and monitoring of supply
chain activities with the objective of creating net value, building a competitive infrastructure,
leveraging worldwide logistics, synchronizing supply with demand, and measuring performance
globally (p.106).
Although it is generally recognized that the individual firms within the supply chain play
a vital role in making prudent strategic supply chain management decisions, the importance of
the interrelationships among supply chain members is increasingly recognized. A more holistic
view considers supply chain management to be a systematic, strategic coordination of the
traditional business functions for the purposes of improving the long-term performance of the
individual companies and the supply chain as a whole (Mentzer, DeWitt, Keebler, & Min, 2001).
For
