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A View of Cognitive Approaches to Learning Development - DE Oracle

Author: Smelser Linda
Publication venue: University of Maryland University College
Publication date: 2010
Field of study

DE Oracle @ UMUC An Online Learning Magazine for UMUC Faculty Center for Support of Instruction A View of Cognitive Approaches to Learning Development Linda Smelser Instructional Support Specialist Non UMUC Published: September-October 2010 Category: » Online-pedagogy » Teaching-strategies Introduction Recently, Jennifer Thompson, UMUC's Assistant Director of Psychology in the School of Undergraduate Studies, presented on the subject of cognitive approaches to development. I was struck by her thoughts on four researchers whose work can help us better understand how students learn—and how this, in turn, can help us be better instructors. An important part of effective teaching is understanding the needs of learners. Each semester, UMUC faculty encounter new classrooms of students from a variety of backgrounds. Our hope is that our students have come to learn, will be interested in the learning process, and will share their learning experiences in our classrooms. As instructors, we enjoy the challenge of getting to know our students to help them learn effectively. UMUC student statistics (http://www.umuc.edu/ip/ataglance.shtml) note that 48% of our students are working parents, and the median age of stateside undergraduates alone in fall 2008 was 31 years old—which means that our classes may have students from the age of 19 to over 60. However, more information is needed to understand our adult learner population. This article provides a brief overview about cognitive approaches concerning student learning processes and what we as instructors can learn from the findings of some well-known educational researchers. Information Processing Instruction can be more effective when teachers understand that students process information in different ways. Many factors are involved in a human's ability to process information. Not only are there gender differences when it comes to learning, but students come with a variety of learning experiences, abilities, and skills. The brain's lifelong capacity for learning is also a factor in that it can reshape itself in response to experience. Recent research shows that the human brain remains plastic (National Science Foundation, 2008) and is impacted by maturation, life circumstances, and practice continuing to change and develop throughout our lives. The following perspectives of four well-known educators help explain how learners progress through learning development in an unorganized fashion and may even regress or become resistant (stall) during the process of learning. The research shows that learning is developmental throughout adulthood, which has very real implications for the continuing acquisition of decision-making and critical-thinking skills. Scheme of Intellectual and Ethical Development: William Perry William G. Perry, psychologist and educational researcher at Harvard University, studied the development of male college students over a 15-year period during the 1950s and 1960s. During his study, Perry formulated a structure for understanding students' cognitive processes which includes both ethical and intellectual development. Based on Perry's framework, called the Scheme of Intellectual and Ethical Development, students A View of Cognitive Approaches to Learning Development - DE Oracle typically progress through nine positions through which they perceive themselves and the world. These positions can be grouped into four developmental stages, which represent shifts in ways of thinking and understanding, as noted below (Rapaport, 2008): Developmental Stage Positions Dualism/Received Knowledge 1. Basic Duality 2. Full Dualism Multiplicity/Subjective Knowledge 3. Early Multiplicity 4. Late Multiplicity Relativism/Procedural Knowledge 5. Contextual Relativism 6. Pre-Commitment Commitment/Constructed Knowledge 7. Commitment 8. Challenges to Commitment 9. Post-Commitment In Perry's scheme, learners start at the first developmental stage of dualism, where their knowledge is absolute and differing points of view are difficult to accept. In the second stage of multiplicity, learners consider the instructor to be the subject matter expert. During the third stage of relativism, learners understand the significance of forming their own point of view based on previous knowledge, experiences, and beliefs. The final stage of commitment finds students able to independently construct ideas through understanding the responsibility to integrate knowledge learned from others using personal experience and reflection. Perry believed that we all make sense of the world differently due to factors such as gender, religion, ethnicity, and socioeconomic status. At any given time we may find ourselves in different positions on different topics or events because the developmental process consists of continual transitions from one position to the next as we seek to make sense of the world around us (University of California Berkeley, n.d.). Development may even be reversed or arrested at a particular stage if the cognitive challenges are too great. For example, depending on their level of knowledge, students may resist learning content that challenges their beliefs, or they may argue that their answers are just as valid as a teacher's answers. At more advanced levels, students may begin to realize that valid disciplinary reasoning methods exist and begin to make choices and commitments to solutions that become a way of life. UMUC faculty can relate to Perry's scheme each time they teach a diverse classroom of students who come with a variety of backgrounds and maturity levels. With the goal of Perry's ninth post-commitment position, faculty hope to see their students able to integrate knowledge from others with their own experience that "involves significant qualitative changes" (Moore, 1995, ¶ 6). In his paper My Mind Exploded, Moore quotes from a student's "best class" essay as an example of qualitative change: The class transformed my attitudes of myself as a student. I no longer played the role of a recorder of my prof's knowledge. I had the ability to go out on my own and seek knowledge although many times I needed guidance from the prof . . . The professor encouraged us not only to learn the material but to think it over and integrate it into our lives. (¶ 6) Stages of Knowing: Marcia Baxter Magolda Marcia Baxter Magolda, a professor in educational leadership at Miami University (OH), developed a model based on a longitudinal qualitative study on male and female students called Stages of Knowing. Her model suggests four phases in which certain patterns of knowing emerge: 1) absolute knowing, 2) transitional knowing, 3) independent knowing, and 4) contextual knowing (Carney, 2002). In her research, Baxter Magolda found that 68% of first-year college students fell into the phase of absolute knowing, similar to Perry's dualism stage. UMUC faculty might find in their classrooms that A View of Cognitive Approaches to Learning Development - DE Oracle according to Baxter Magolda's model, women at the absolute knowing stage are more likely to receive knowledge through listening while men are more likely to display a mastery of knowledge through questioning. Baxter Magolda found that 80% of juniors and seniors rely less on instructors in the phase she calls transitional knowing; at this stage, women show a pattern of gathering information through interpersonal relationships whereas men gather information by challenging others. In the independent knowing phase, 57% of students in their first year after college saw knowledge as uncertain and see themselves as active participants in producing knowledge; women connect with their peers and develop their own voice whereas men remain more individual and autonomy emerges more strongly. Baxter Magolda found that only 12% of students in their first year out of college had reached the last phase of contextual knowing, thinking for themselves and understanding that knowledge is based on an integration of evidence and ideas. Andragogical Model: Malcolm Knowles Malcolm Knowles, author of the andragogical model and the former executive director of the Adult Education Association of America, popularized the use of andragogy (teaching adults) and discussed it in terms of characteristics of the adult learner. In her presentation, Jennifer Thompson attributed the following six characteristics from Knowles' model to show how curriculum development and instruction are most effective when considering the needs of adult learners (personal communication, December 7, 2009): Characteristics Pedagogy Andragogy Need to Know What the teacher tells you What you need to know to deal with real life Self-Concept Dependent Self-directed Experience Does not inform learning Wealth of experience as a resource, informs need to know Readiness to Learn What the teacher tells you Skills and knowledge that are immediately relevant Orientation Subject-focused Problem-focused Motivation External Internal The stages of Knowles's andragogy speak directly to the student population in UMUC's online classrooms: working adults with varied outside responsibilities that may include family, taking care of parents, and more. UMUC instructors find themselves teaching students who are at different stages of learning depending on their background, experience, and ability to manage time. The stages make an important statement about—and impact the delivery of—instruction: Need to know: Adults need to know the reason for learning something. Realization is an important tool for raising the level of awareness in which learners discover for themselves the gaps between where they are and where they want to be. 1. Self-concept: An adult learner's self-concept moves from being dependent to being self-directed. Being self-directed means using one's own experience to identify the readiness and focus of learning and organizing learning around the activities and issues of life. Self-directed learners are responsible for the decisions about their education and want to be involved in the planning and evaluation of their instruction. 2. Experience: Adult learners accumulate a growing reservoir of experiences that become an increasing resource for learning. 3. Readiness to learn: The readiness to learn becomes oriented increasingly to the developmental tasks of social roles. Adults are most interested in learning what has immediate relevance to their work and/or personal lives and want to learn knowledge and skills that will help them deal with real-life situations. 4. Orientation to learning: As a pers 5. on matures his time perspective changes from one of postponed A View of Cognitive Approaches to Learning Development - DE Oracle application of knowledge ("I might need to know this someday") to immediacy of application ("how can I use this knowledge or skill in my current daily life?"). Adult learner's learn best when information is presented in such a way that shows application to real-life situations. Motivation to learn: While adults are motivated by external forces, such as increase in pay or new job responsibilities, they can also be directed by internal forces such as self-esteem and quality of life. 6. Three Domains of Learning: Benjamin Bloom As instructors, it is important to consider Bloom's idea that learning involves mental, emotional, and physical behaviors. Bloom's taxonomy of behavioral objectives include three domains of learning that impact the learning experience: Cognitive: mental skills (Knowledge) Affective: growth in feelings or emotional areas (Attitude) Psychomotor: manual or physical skills (Skills) The cognitive domain involves the development of intellectual skills through "recall or recognition of specific facts, procedural patterns, and concepts that serve in the development of intellectual abilities and skills" (Clark, 2010, ¶ 5). Cognitive learning is a process that is demonstrated through a series of stages that represent increasingly higher-level thinking skills, including knowledge recall, comprehension of information, application of knowledge, analysis and synthesis of information, and evaluation of ideas based on existing knowledge. Churches (2008) notes that a former student of Bloom revised the taxonomy slightly in 2001, using the categories of remembering, understanding, applying, analyzing, evaluating, and creating. He simplifies the learning process in this manner: Before we can understand a concept we have to remember it Before we can apply the concept we must understand it Before we analyze it we must be able to apply it Before we can evaluate its impact we must have analyzed it Before we can create we must have remembered, understood, applied, analyzed, and evaluated. (p. 5) Cognitive learning is not an automatic process and comes to students in a variety of ways during different times in their educational journey, both in and out of the classroom. It takes practice and experience to be able to achieve each part of the learning process. Because cognition is not automatic and every student arrives in class at a different stage, Bloom came to the conviction that instructors should not compare students' acquisition of knowledge but rather recognize their differences and abilities and how they might contribute to the goals of the curriculum (Eisner, 2000). As an instructor, I especially resonated with this idea and keep it in mind throughout the semester. Summary UMUC faculty are challenged to teach students from all walks of life. Perry and Baxter Magolda remind us that our students are at different stages of learning development when they arrive in our classrooms. As instructors, we can use our classrooms to challenge our students to move to the next level of processing information. Knowles's andragogical model reminds us that our adult students have specific needs that, when understood, can have an impact on the way we deliver content. And lastly, Bloom reminds us that at whatever stage of learning our students arrive in our classrooms, we should not compare them to one another but help them appreciate the level they are at and their ability to learn and grow. Resources Carney, K. C. (2002). Baxter Magolda's epistemological reflection model. Retrieved from http://www.uiowa.edu/~epls/faculty/pascarel/papers/carney.pdf (http://www.uiowa.edu/~epls /faculty/pascarel/papers/carney.pdf) A View of Cognitive Approaches to Learning Development - DE Oracle Churches, A. (2008). Bloom's digital taxonomy. Retrieved from http://www.montgomeryschoolsmd.org/uploadedFiles/departments/techtraining /homepage/BloomDigitalTaxonomy2001.pdf (http://www.montgomeryschoolsmd.org/uploadedFiles /departments/techtraining/homepage/BloomDigitalTaxonomy2001.pdf) Clark, D. (2010). Bloom's taxonomy of learning domains: The three types of learning. Retrieved from http://www.nwlink.com/~donclark/hrd/bloom.html (http://www.nwlink.com/~donclark/hrd/bloom.html) Eisner, E. W. (2000, September). Benjamin Bloom, 1913-99. Prospects: Quarterly Review of Comparative Education, 30(3), 387-395. Retrieved from http://www.ibe.unesco.org/publications /ThinkersPdf/bloome.pdf (http://www.ibe.unesco.org/publications/ThinkersPdf/bloome.pdf) Moore, W. S. (1995). My mind exploded: Intellectual development as a critical framework for understanding and assessing collaborative learning. In Assessment in and of Collaborative Learning (Washington Center Evaluation Committee, Eds.). Olympia, WA: Washington Center for Improving the Quality of Undergraduate Education. Retrieved from http://www.evergreen.edu/washcenter /resources/acl/iia.html (http://www.evergreen.edu/washcenter/resources/acl/iia.html) National Science Foundation. (2008, June 5). Plastic brain outsmarts experts [Press release]. Retrieved from http://www.nsf.gov/news/news_summ.jsp?cntn_id=111659 (http://www.nsf.gov /news/news_summ.jsp?cntn_id=111659) Rapaport, W. J. (2008). William Perry's scheme of intellectual and ethical development. Retrieved from http://www.cse.buffalo.edu/~rapaport/perry.positions.html (http://www.cse.buffalo.edu/~rapaport /perry.positions.html) University of California, Berkeley. (n.d.). Theories of learning: William G. Perry. In Teaching guide for graduate student instructors. Retrieved from http://gsi.berkeley.edu/teachingguide2009 /learning/perry.html (http://gsi.berkeley.edu/teachingguide2009/learning/perry.html) About the Author(s) Linda Smelser is an instructional support specialist in the Center for Support of Instruction and an adjunct faculty for the School of Undergraduate Studies. She also teaches faculty development workshops for the Center for Teaching and Learning. Linda understands the needs of adult learners from both first-hand experience and in her previous role as a UMUC academic advisor. She started her college career as a working single mother and 11 years later received her master's degree in instructional systems development from UMBC. Along with her academic advising experience, Linda brings to CSI her expertise in the areas of quality customer support, corporate training, technical writing, and instructional design. Linda appreciates working in a true learning community and developing solutions that meet the needs of a diverse clientele. In her spare time, Linda enjoys reading, yoga, mountain biking, dancing, and traveling to California and Philadelphia to visit her children and grandchildren. Rating: Not yet rated Comments No comments posted. You must be logged in and be a member of the UMUC community in order to comment. A View of Cognitive Approaches to Learning Development - DE Oracle Contact Site Manager Created and Maintained by the Center for Support of Instruction © University of Maryland University College Powered by ArticleMS from ArticleTrader.com If you are a member of the UMUC community and do not have an account, please register for a FREE one. If you have a guest account but are Faculty/Staff of UMUC please send an email to the DE Oracle Site Manager (mailto:[email protected]?subject=Please Update my DE Oracle Guest Account) so that your guest account can be updated. A View of Cognitive Approaches to Learning Development - DE Oracl

Designing for Success with the Seven Principles - DE Oracle

Author: Jones Gretchen
Publication venue: University of Maryland University College
Publication date: 2010
Field of study

DE Oracle @ UMUC An Online Learning Magazine for UMUC Faculty Center for Support of Instruction Designing for Success with the Seven Principles Gretchen Jones Academic Director, Foreign Languages and Asian Studies School of Undergraduate Studies Published: July-August 2010 Category: » Online-pedagogy » Teaching-strategies In its current curriculum redesign project, the School of Undergraduate Studies is using the instructional design principles laid out in Chickering and Gamson’s (1987) Seven Principles for Good Practice in Undergraduate Education. These guidelines, developed from many years of research, indicate that instructors and students—as well as administrators—can work together to create a more effective teaching and learning environment. The seven principles are as follows: Communicate high expectations Respect diverse talents and ways of learning Encourage active learning Give prompt feedback Encourage cooperation among students Encourage student-faculty contact Emphasize time on task These "common sense" principles are applicable to a variety of educational levels, useful for any academic discipline, and meaningful to all types of learners. Moreover, the guidelines suggest that good instructional methods are every bit as important as academic content in helping students acquire and apply knowledge. During the recent design of CHIN 111 Elementary Chinese, the development team used the seven principles to create an engaging, completely online foreign language course. During the design and development process, the seven principles were integrated with David Merrill’s (2002) First Principles of Instruction to build a highly interactive and immersive learning environment. The course won the Maryland Distance Learning Association (MDLA) Course of the Year award in 2009 and the University Continuing Education Association (UCEA) Distance Learning Community of Practice Meritorious Course Award in 2010. The details below demonstrate how Chickering and Gamson’s principles were incorporated into CHIN 111: Communicate High Expectations: CHIN 111 consists of nine lessons and is carefully structured to gradually scaffold students to higher-level learning, while at the same time reinforcing skills already learned. Each lesson begins with clearly stated, specific, measurable learning objectives and a printable checklist to ensure that students complete all the written, spoken, listening, and reading assignments at the end of the week. Following Merrill’s Activation Principle, a warm-up exercise for each module exposes students to the topic of the unit, asking them to recall knowledge they have already learned, and then stimulates them to reach beyond into new material in a low-stakes yet challenging way. Respect Diverse Talents and Ways of Learning: The centerpiece of the course is seven animated videos, licensed from an outside vendor called Active Chinese (http://www.activechinese.com/) . The seven videos have three settings which allow students to 1) immerse themselves in a Chinese dialogue played at natural speed, 2) play the dialogue slowly with English pop-ups, or 3) play the dialogue line-by-line with text in the pinyin transliteration system, Chinese vernacular characters, or English translation, as Designing for Success with the Seven Principles - DE Oracle the learner chooses. In addition to audio, the videos employ graphic tone direction markers and color coding, as well as Chinese characters and pinyin to accommodate multiple learning modalities and student needs. With these videos, students experience language in context, as it is actually used to accomplish real-life tasks. With multiple learning objects, students are able to manipulate the content in a manner that best suits their particular learning style. Encourage Active Learning and Give Prompt Feedback: Grammar that emerges out of the contextualized video presentation is explained in a narrative fashion because adult language learners often prefer extensive explanations. To make these sections more interactive, vocabulary and example sentences that illustrate grammatical principles are recorded by native speakers of Chinese (including both male and female voices, with a range of ages), which provides students with substantial audio input that they can play as often as needed. Two types of application exercises with automatic feedback follow grammar points, which empower students to try what they have learned and to immediately reinforce their learning. When students feel confident in their skills, they end the lesson with an online quiz, with results reported to both the instructor and the student. These scaffolded task-based assessments lead students from memorization to comprehension, application, and finally synthesis, with a consistent and prompt feedback loop. Encourage Cooperation Among Students: Because understanding the culture is an essential component of language learning, images, Web links, and other materials enrich students’ experience of the course and knowledge of Chinese life and culture in addition to language. For example, an interactive map of the Chinese Diaspora asks students to identify different countries in which Chinese is spoken, expanding knowledge of relevant geography as well as language. Each lesson contains an Application of Language Skills section, which includes various activities that ask students to work collaboratively to find information on Chinese life, such as train schedules and other vital information, as well as to practice specific language skills. The intent of this section is to have students use authentic online materials to work on real-life tasks; this helps students feel that the language they learn in each lesson is useful and connected to actual situations they may encounter. Through completing real-life tasks, students also obtain opportunities to explore cultural elements. Thus, the modules express the idea that linguistic competency cannot be separated from understanding the cultural aspects of a society. This is also in accordance with the language learning standards developed by the American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages. Encourage Student-Faculty Contact: All four competency skills—speaking, listening, reading, and writing—are addressed in the course. Oral production and additional listening comprehension are accomplished outside the course modules through the use of Wimba software, which allows students to communicate with the instructor, teaching assistant, and each other synchronously and asynchronously with the use of a microphone and speakers. Emphasize Time on Task: All of the learning activities are focused on the essential goal of a lesson, and they allow students to integrate what they have learned up to that point. The careful focus and building of one element on another reinforces previous learning, and it also reduces time spent on unnecessary work. In this sense, the course also meets Merrill’s Integration and Task-Centered Principles, including activation of prior experience, demonstration of skills, application of skills, and integration or these skills into real-world activities. This approach makes the most of the time spent learning. The seven principles can be a useful starting point for considering how to improve one’s own teaching and facilitating, especially in online courses. As demonstrated here, they can also be built directly into the design of a course to create an even stronger learning community upfront. Resources Chickering, A. W., & Gamson, Z. (1987). Seven principles for good practice in undergraduate Designing for Success with the Seven Principles - DE Oracle Contact Site Manager Created and Maintained by the Center for Support of Instruction © University of Maryland University College Powered by ArticleMS from ArticleTrader.com education. AAHE Bulletin, 40(7), 3-7. Retrieved from http://honolulu.hawaii.edu/intranet /committees/FacDevCom/guidebk/teachtip/7princip.htm (http://honolulu.hawaii.edu/intranet /committees/FacDevCom/guidebk/teachtip/7princip.htm) Merrill, M. D. (2002). First principles of instruction. Educational Technology Research and Development, 50(3), 43-59. Retrieved from http://mdavidmerrill.com/Papers/firstprinciplesbymerrill.pdf (http://mdavidmerrill.com/Papers/firstprinciplesbymerrill.pdf) About the Author(s) Gretchen Jones has been with UMUC since 2007. A specialist in modern Japanese literature and language, Jones brings experience in both non-Western language pedogogy as well as Asian Studies. She has lived for five years in Japan and continues to teach Japanese studies courses online. She is the Academic Director of Foreign Languages and Asian Studies in the School of Undergraduate Studies. Hsiang-ting Wu is an adjunct assistant professor of Chinese in the School of Undergraduate Studies. Ms. Wu has a Master's Degrees in Linguistics and Instructional Science and Technology, and her research interests include pedagogical approaches and learner needs, among others. Rating: Not yet rated Comments No comments posted. You must be logged in and be a member of the UMUC community in order to comment. If you are a member of the UMUC community and do not have an account, please register for a FREE one. If you have a guest account but are Faculty/Staff of UMUC please send an email to the DE Oracle Site Manager (mailto:[email protected]?subject=Please Update my DE Oracle Guest Account) so that your guest account can be updated. Designing for Success with the Seven Principles - DE Oracl

Shift happens: Five critical forces that are changing U.S. higher education

Author: Allen Nicholas H.
Publication venue: University of Maryland University College (UMUC)
Publication date: 18/02/2010
Field of study

Dr. Nick Allen, Provost Emeritus and Collegiate Professor in the Graduate School, discussed five forces that are changing U.S. higher education and what we must do to meet these challenges. The five critical forces discussed were: 1. An acute national need for tertiary education 2. Critical demographic shifts 3. Continued, rapid change in technology 4. Intense competition 5. Growing regulatory pressure for accountability and resultsShift Happens Five Critical Forces That Are Changing U.S. Higher Education Faculty Research Seminar Series University of Maryland University College 18 February 2010 Largo, Maryland Nicholas H. Allen, DPA Provost Emeritus & Collegiate Professor Graduate School of Management & Technology [email protected] Changing World What will shape U.S. Higher Education in the next 10 to 15 years? What will be the impact on our Higher Education Institutions: Especially those serving “non-traditional”students? What must we do to meet these challenges?Forces of Change in the U.S. 1. Acute national need 2. Critical demographic shifts 3. Continued, rapid change in technology 4. Intense competition 5. Growing regulatory pressure for accountability and resultsA Shift Is Underway The extent to which many educational institutions anticipate and plan for these five trends may well determine if they: Thrive and grow Struggle and decline The U.S. higher education paradigm we knew for much of the 20thcentury will not be the same for the 21st1. National Need Demand for tertiary education in the U.S. will come from four sources: Traditional baseline growth patterns The shift to non-traditional students National goals in response to global competition Rising social expectations: tertiary education will be a universal requirement *IES National Center for Educational Statistics, Sep 2008Baseline Growth Patterns Baseline enrollment growth at U.S. post-secondary, degree-granting institutions will continue over 2006-2017: Projected: +13% (20.1M students) Average annual growth: 1.18% Down from 1.64% over 1992-2006 But still healthy based on historical patterns of attendance *IES National Center for Educational Statistics, Sep 2008National Need: 2006-2017 The Baby-Boom Echo Generation moves on: Age: 18-24 +10% 25-34 +27% 35+ + 8% Level: UG + 12% G + 18% Prof + 22% *IES National Center for Educational Statistics, Sep 2008Shift to Non-traditional Students Traditional students get the attention: 18-22 years old Full-time Residing on campus But, of 17 million students enrolled in post-secondary education in 2006: Only 16% fit the definition for traditional students* *Stokes, Peter J.; Hidden in Plain Sight, Eduventures Issue Paper to The Commission on the Future of Higher Education, 2006.Shift to Non-traditional Real change has already taken place: 58% aged 22 + 40% 25 or older 40% studying part-time 40% at 2 year schools* Future growth will continue to be driven by non-traditional student patterns *Stokes, Peter J.; Hidden in Plain Sight, Eduventures Issue Paper to The Commission on the Future of Higher Education, 2006.National Attainment Goals 60-75% of fastest growing jobs in US require education at associate level or higher* Yet compared to other OECD nations, the U.S. ranks: 11thin entry rate to a tertiary degree 15thin tertiary graduation rates (1stin 1995) 18thin tertiary science graduates per 100,000 employed 25-34 year olds** *US BLS, Occupational Outlook Handbook, 2008-2009 **OECD, Education at a Glance, September 2008National Attainment Goals Fewer than 40% of U.S. working age adults (25-65) have a tertiary degree (2006) Nine OECD nations have set attainment goals of 55% by 2025 The President and national foundations have called for the U.S. to meet or exceed this goal To match 55% attainment, U.S. degree production must increase by 40% (16M graduates) over the period 2005-2025.* *NCHE, Adding it up: State Challenges for Increasing College Access and Success, November 2007.Rising Expectations Cross cultural belief: education offers hope for a better job, life, and role in society. Education is becoming accepted as a human right (Spellings Commission: Every citizen shall have the opportunity to earn a degree.) Universal participation in a post-secondary degree will become a 21stcentury requirement National Need: Impact The U.S. faces unprecedented need to expand capacity and raise attainment rates of a tertiary degree Opportunities will abound for both for-profit and not-for-profit providers to fulfill this need Cutbacks in public funding may limit expansion in traditional public institutions This need cannot be fulfilled through traditional bricks and mortar expansion 2. Major Demographic Shifts (U.S.) The emerging Hispanic & immigrant population The arrival of “The Third Agers”(55-79) and “Encore Careers”Hispanic & Immigrant Growth Projected U.S. population growth between 2005 and 2050:* 296 to 438 million Foreign born residents will double to 1in 5 Whites drop to 47% Blacks remain at 13% Asians grow to nearly 10% Hispanics will represent nearly a third *Pew Research Center, 2008Hispanic & Immigrant Growth By 2022 half public high school graduates will be minorities with Hispanics making up a fourth:* Many will aspire to be first time degree earners Many will come underprepared from substandard schools *Western Interstate Commission for Higher EducationImpact Projected Enrollment Increases in Degree-Granting Postsecondary Institutions 2006-2017 Whites5% Blacks26% Asian26% Hispanic39% *IES National Center for Educational Statistics, Sep 2008The Third Age: Tsunami Over 80 million “Boomers”born between 1945-1965 reach retirement in next 20. First to reach partial retirement (62): 2008 First to reach full Social Security ret.: 2012 Last Boomers to reach age 85: 2051 By 2030, over 20% of the U.S. will be 65 or older (70 million).* *ACE, Older Adults & Higher Education, 2007Third Age: Longevity Revolution 1950 2001 Average Retirement Age: 68 Life Expectancy: 68 62 78+The Third Age Will Continue to Work In 2004, 54.2 million adults in the U.S. were between 55-79. By 2014, 41% of those ≥55 will still be in the work force.* 66% of those now 50-59 plan to keep working 70% of those 50-70 plan to work at least part time** *Met Life Foundation & Civic Ventures survey,2005; **Merrill Lynch SurveyWhy They Won’t Retire? Fear of outliving incomes Unable or don’t want to continue current careers, but want or need to work New career interests; desire to contribute to something of value; new directions Self fulfillment.Changing Demographics: Impact No industry ignores demographic shifts that each represent 20% of the national population. Future tertiary student populations will be highly diverse in terms of: Age Ethnic/cultural background Previous educational experience Degree of preparation Economic status Technology fluencyChanging Demographics: Impact Additional pressures will be placed on HE to respond with programs and services that help these students succeed Many will come underprepared from previous educational experiences Many will be F-Gen learners Third Agers will need support services and programs tailored to their needs No one-size approach in delivery format, support services, or pedagogy will fit all.3. Technology Shift: Pervasive growth of online education, especially in the non-traditional market Interoperability revolution Breakthrough innovations in key educational applications and hardware, especially mobile devices. Impact of Web 2.0+ technologies on pedagogy, access to content, & servicesThe Online Delivery Revolution From 2002 to 2008 online enrollments grew at a annual compound rate of 19.0 % (versus 1.5% for all HE) By fall 2008, 25.3% (4.6 million) of all HE students took at least one online course* Growing acceptance of online education as good or better than f2f education** By 2020, half of all learning may be online*** *Allen & Seaman, Learning on demand (2009); **USDoE, Eval of evidence-based practice in online education (2009); ***Draves & Coates, Nine Shift (2004)Interoperability Revolution Increasing importance and use of standards so different technology systems, sites, and widgets can interact Quiet but pervasive change in way that different technologies now fit together invisibly at the user level Unparalleled access to micro and meta content and immediate functionality Breakthroughs in Key Applications E-reader technology (e-paper and e-plastic) iPhoneWeb-in-the-hand connectivity Within 5 years the typical mobile will have the computing power of today’s PC The rise of cloud computing Impact: M-learning explosion:E-reader Applications May 6, 2009 7:46 AM PDT Amazon's big-screen Kindle DX makes its debutE-reader Applications Wednesday, May 27, 2009 Plastic Logic's Touch-Screen E-ReaderE-reader Applications Dec/Jan 2010 over a dozen e-readers on the market: NookE-reader Applications QUE SamsungE-reader Applications SkiffE-reader Applications Jan 27, 2010: iPadThe Web 2.0 Revolution Internet: evolving from two dimensional theatre to a multidimensional cyber sphere The network ISthe platform Users add value Database gets better the more people use it Network is about getting the right information when you need itWeb 2.0 Culture: Openness as hallmark Open source and open content Micro content Metadata Users in charge Cloud computing Collaboration Swarm intelligence Social networking Networks of networks Spontaneity Dynamic, continuous changeTraditional Delivery ModelsTransitionAsynchronous Different Synchronous • ITV • Live Telecourses • IVN • Audio/Video Conferencing • Correspondence -Print Based -Audio/Video Tapes • Voice Mail • Online/WWW Time • Classroom • Face to face (f2f) Same • Computer Lab • Libraries P l a c e S a m e D i f f e r e n t Time The FutureOpen Content Movement Open Education Resources (OERs) Origins in the Open source movement Support from major foundations as Hewlett Foundation Philosophy: Knowledge belongs to humanity Knowledge grows when sharedCreative Commons Share, reuse, remix legally Defining the space between: “All rights reserved”and “No rights reserved”(public domain) Bringing balance between innovation and protection Non-profit: launched 2001/02 Now in 52 countries; 8 more pending 130 million objects on file Building International OER search projectTechnology Impact Technology systems will enable HE institutions to provide mass access to quality education at affordable costs Web 2.0+ technologies have the potential to change the classroom and learning opportunities as never before imagined Open content offers access to rich learning resources not before available to many institutions and studentsBut: Institutions will need to carefully assess which new technologies and approaches will be effective as opposed to fads Faculty will need to master basic Web 2.0+ technologies or become irrelevant Faculty roles must change from transferring content to transferring wisdom.4. Competitive Pressures Competition for the non-traditional student will intensify from both for-profit and not-for-profit sectors Supply may actually outpace demand Online delivery will enable competitors to leap over geographic/regulatory boundaries Online growth will come from schools that are well established and fully engaged* *SLOAN-C, Online Nation, October 2007Increasing Competition Private for-profit institutions are growing online enrollments 5 times the rate of public and private non-profit schools (2002 –fall 2006)* Public: 59% Private NFP: 49% Private FP: 340% By 2009, for-profits owned 42% of U.S. online sector** *SLOAN-C, Online Nation, October, 2007; **Perry, M. (2009)Competitive Pressures Earlier approaches to positioning and differentiation based on convenience and scheduling alone will not be enough Higher education institutions will need to take a “student centric”approach to attract and keep more students Institutions will need to move from “rhetoric toward evidence based marketing”* *Eduventures, February 2006.Competitive Impact Front door recruiting and admissions systems will become integrated with other institutional systems to reach prospective students Student success may become a competitive differentiator Student retention and persistence programs will take on strategic importance Early warning systems will become critical tools of retentionCompetitive Impact Higher education institutions will need to use the new technologies combined with process re-engineering principles to: Wrap student support and engagement systems around academic programs Gather critical operating metrics Scale delivery of programs and services Mass customize5. Regulatory Pressures Issues of cost and accountability will continue to demand attention Higher education will need to take charge of these issues or other interests will.Accountability Higher education: an industry focused too much on inputs and process, and too little on results Rising costs, public pressure, and increasing political concerns over “value for the money”will continue to push institutions toward a focus on results especially mastery of basic skills. Increasing costs Note: % growth in current dollars Source: CNNMoney.com Aug 22, 2008 from Bureau of Labor StatisticsAccountability Little more than half of all students enrolled in four years programs will graduate in 6 years* Student Retention if not addressed will become an explosive issue Large numbers of F-Gen and low income students will accentuate the problem Solutions will require “intentional”interventions designed into new student and enrollment management systems *American Enterprise Institute, 2009Higher Education Opp. Act 2008 Increased regulation & reporting Assessment of student achievement remains with institutions and accreditors: But will not go away Continued focus on: accessibility, affordability, accountability Renewal in 4 years; renewed attention in two depending on progress Regulatory Impact Retention and persistence strategies will take on critical importance with increasing numbers of low income and first degree seekers Non-traditional education programs will need to be creative in designing front door systems that help students stay connected and succeed If higher education does not address this problem others will solve it for usHow Must We Respond to Meet these Challenges? 1. Build scalable education programs that leverage technology and systems tools wisely to: Dramatically expand capacity Increase access Reduce per student costs [Now is the time for DE to fulfill its potential and its promise in the U.S.]How Must We Respond? 2. Design programs that while scalable are also customized to particular market segments and provide new inputs to the national HE pipeline: Capitalize on prior learning experiences Address language and technology fluency Link to directly with employer needsHow Must We Respond? 3. Provide technology driven, scalable support systems, wrapped around academic programs and mass customized to: Make students part of the learning community Address individual student needs Enable students to succeedHow Must We Respond? 4. Implement “intentional” persistence programs designed around academic programs and services to address the needs of high risk students: Front door systems that focus on individual students early in their academic experience Early warning systems that intervene before too late Clear paths through the curriculumHow Must We Respond? 5. Pursue realistic and systemic approaches to learning outcomes assessment: to assure students achieve or exceed baseline knowledge and skills in core areas necessary for employment and responsible citizenship in the 21stcentury.How Must We Respond? 6.Provide data-driven research that enables institutions and faculty to assess impact of new educational technologies, Web 2.0+ tools, OER, & delivery formats on: Costs Efficiency of learning Student learning outcomes Faculty productivity Institutional effectivenessHow Must We Respond? 7. Develop OER tracking systems that help faculty (and students) become aware of high quality resources that are appropriate to: The subject and pedagogical context of a particular course or program An individual student’s needsHow Must We Respond? 8. Require professional development as a condition of employment for faculty to: Enable mastery of Web 2.0+ technologies Facilitate moving from roles of transferring content to ones of transferring wisdom How Must We Respond? 9. Develop technology driven processes that reengineer and integrate institutional academic and administrative systems effectively to: Raise institutional productivity Lower the cost per student Support delivery of high quality programsForces of Change in the U.S. 1. Acute national need 2. Critical demographic shifts 3. Continued, rapid change in technology 4. Intense competition 5. Growing regulatory pressure for accountability and resultsMuch Work to Be Done Open and flexible distance learning institutions will need to be front and center to lead the changes that must take place Now is the time to fulfill the promise

Enhancement of team work in MBA programs: An evaluation of best practices

Author: Blank Murray D.; Locklear, Kathleen
Publication venue: University of Maryland University College (UMUC)
Publication date: 2009
Field of study

Abstract: This research paper suggests a set of best practices for the development and implementation of team work in MBA programs. The objective is to suggest ways in which to concurrently maximize positive student experiences and enhanced value to employers of MBA program graduates. The research has two principal components. The first is a field study of team work involving the MBA program of the University of Maryland University College. This research involved a review of the program syllabi and field observations designed to identify key design aspects of team work projects as implemented at the University of Maryland University College. The second component of the research is a focused literature review regarding academic team project difficulties and solutions. From the scholarly literature, several best practices are identified, including the following: the importance of early team member introductions and interactions; the need for a team work plan; the positive influence of faculty member expressions of high performance expectations and possible outcomes from the utilization of peer evaluations. The literature review is utilized as the basis for a set of best practices related to the design and implementation of team work in MBA programs. The findings and recommendations offered relate to both process and structure issues and include the following: suggested roles for Faculty Assistants; required use of team work plans; adjustments to individual grades; use of peer evaluation forms; management of social loafing problems.UMUC Working Paper Series – Number 2009-010 Enhancement of Team Work in MBA Programs: An Evaluation of Best Practices By Dr. Murray D. Blank and Kathleen Locklear [email protected] Graduate School of Management and Technology May, 2009 UMUC Working Paper Series – Number 2009-010 UMUC Working Paper Series – Number 2009010 Enhancement of Team Work in MBA Programs: An Evaluation of Best Practices 2 Abstract This research paper suggests a set of best practices for the development and implementation of team work in MBA programs. The objective is to suggest ways in which to concurrently maximize positive student experiences and enhanced value to employers of MBA program graduates. The research has two principal components. The first is a field study of team work involving the MBA program of the University of Maryland University College. This research involved a review of the program syllabi and field observations designed to identify key design aspects of team work projects as implemented at the University of Maryland University College. The second component of the research is a focused literature review regarding academic team project difficulties and solutions. From the scholarly literature, several best practices are identified, including the following: the importance of early team member introductions and interactions; the need for a team work plan; the positive influence of faculty member expressions of high performance expectations and possible outcomes from the utilization of peer evaluations. The literature review is utilized as the basis for a set of best practices related to the design and implementation of team work in MBA programs. The findings and recommendations offered relate to both process and structure issues and include the following: suggested roles for Faculty Assistants; required use of team work plans; adjustments to individual grades; use of peer evaluation forms; management of social loafing problems. Key words: academic team work, MBA team work UMUC Working Paper Series – Number 2009010 Enhancement of Team Work in MBA Programs: An Evaluation of Best Practices 3 Introduction The concept of team work has been around in both the business and academic world for many years, and businesses have long realized that teams are an effective way to get things done. However, as business becomes increasingly global, team work - and virtual teamwork in particular - have taken on greater importance (Olson-Buchannan, et al., 2007, p. 408). Business is placing growing importance on the ability of MBA graduates to lead and work effectively as part of teams. As clearly articulated by Wardell (1998, p. 4), "…a company's ability to seize an opportunity often depends on how fast it can field a team of talented individuals … [placing] big premium on the skills of virtual management". However, a common criticism of business education, and MBA programs in particular, is that "MBA programmes ignore the importance of teamwork" (Neelankavil, 1994, p. 40). In a study which sets forth the "emerging model for management education in the 21st century" (Kedia & Harveston, 1998, p. 208), contrast is drawn between the "traditional" MBA model and the "emerging" MBA model. In the former, education was individualistic and quantitative; while in the latter, education is increasingly analytical with emphasis on team work. In order to provide value to employers, MBA program graduates must be equipped with the skill set to operate effectively and efficiently in team situations. And in particular, in today’s global business environment, MBA program graduates must be able to function productively in teams which are separated both temporally and geographically. It has become a core competency for MBA graduates to be comfortable “working with and managing those whom [they] do not see, except on rare and prearranged occasions (Handy, 1995, p. 42). At the same time, however, MBA team projects need to be appealing and satisfying to students. This research project was inspired in part by the authors’ observation, based upon student comments and classroom interactions, that student satisfaction was sometimes diminished by team dynamic difficulties. Some concerns in particular, applicable to both virtual and traditional (face-to-face)1 team situations are: students often do not like team academic assignments; team assignments tend to boost the grades of weaker students while lowering the grades of stronger students; team projects are often hindered by the behavior of at least one "social loafer"2. In this regard, 1 It is noted here the MBA program at University of Maryland University College (UMUC) is offered in two configurations. The first format is entirely on-line and the second is offered partially on-line and partially face-to-face in a classroom. This second configuration has been designated as "hybrid". 2 A “social loafer” is defined here as a team member who exhibits one or more of the following behaviors: a) fails to carry his/her apportioned share of the team's workload; b) doesn't communicate with the other team members or timely produce agreed-upon contributions; c) produces sub-standard work product which another team member must revise in-order for it to be useful to the team's final product; or d) causes friction or conflict within the team. UMUC Working Paper Series – Number 2009010 Enhancement of Team Work in MBA Programs: An Evaluation of Best Practices 4 comments shared by one student are especially telling. That student3 commented, "The weeks when team projects are due are generally easy weeks for me. The team divides up the work of the project, and the effort required is never as much as I would spend on an individual assignment. Team projects are not challenging. They should require one hundred percent of each member's effort. Team assignments should be more synergistic." With these thoughts in mind, it is emphasized here that MBA programs need to deliver value to two key sets of stakeholders: MBA graduates and their employers. This paper seeks to identify a core set of best practices which will help ensure that MBA team projects deliver maximum value to these two key stakeholders. Research Approach Based on the concerns expressed by students and MBA employers, as well as the authors’ own observations and concerns, the authors felt an examination of MBA team project efficacy was timely. The authors’ objective was to develop recommendations for mitigating the concerns of students and employers, thereby improving the overall efficacy of team work projects in MBA programs. In order to accomplish this, the authors sought to draw upon "best practices" in the area of team work. First, the authors collected information on how team work projects are currently developed and operating in UMUC’s MBA program. Next, a literature review was conducted to identify possible solutions (best practices) for mitigating common issues which can hinder the efficacy of academic team projects. Field Research- Findings and Observations The authors commenced their research by requesting information from the MBA program Course Managers. These information gathering efforts were designed to garner an understanding of how teams and team work are currently developed and operating within UMUC’s MBA program. In addition, the authors conducted a focused analysis of the current MBA program syllabi, with emphasis on the team work related content. Overview of Findings This information gathering and analysis yielded several findings. First, it was apparent that the MBA program syllabi provide detailed instructions and expectations for the team project assignments. Teams are expected to develop a comprehensive team work plan for each project. Instructors and/or Faculty Assistants review the team work plans and provide feedback to the teams. Work plans are graded in only one course. Team organization and management is generally left to the discretion of each team. However, each syllabus stipulates that all team communication and individual contributions must be posted in the teams' Study Group Conferences. The end product of all team projects is a written paper. However, teams in most hybrid sections are also expected to make oral 3 The student who made this comment carried a 4.0 grade point average at the time of the interview. UMUC Working Paper Series – Number 2009010 Enhancement of Team Work in MBA Programs: An Evaluation of Best Practices 5 presentations of their final projects. With few exceptions, team projects are not cumulative in nature. That is, they do not build upon preceding individual assignments or extend over the entire seminar. Provisions are made in each course syllabus for teams to submit peer evaluations after completing project. However, these evaluations are not required in every course, and there is wide variation in the forms and processes in use. Course Managers delegate to Instructors the authority to adjust individual students' grades up or down, but there is little process guidance on how to accomplish this. Faculty Assistants are generally charged with the "care-and-feeding" of teams, including the management of team process issues. However, it appears that Instructor-Faculty Assistant pairs in individual course sections may handle management of teams differently. The authors’ field research revealed that the MBA program syllabi provide detailed instructions and expectations for the team project assignments. Although it is intuitive that clear project instructions are important, "how-to" information for accomplishing this was not readily available in the literature. It is suggested here that particular care should be taken to provide instructions that are concise, complete and clear. In addition to specific details regarding due dates and where to submit completed projects, instructions should encourage students to seek clarification early on in the event of any perceived ambiguity. Performance Expectations As noted by Berlew and Hall (1966), when leaders have high expectations for a group, the group will generally “perform up” to meet or exceed those expectations. Berlew and Hall also noted (p. 208), "One of the strongest determinants of behavior is the expectations of other people. In the language of role theory…behavior…is strongly influenced by the expectations of significant others". It is therefore suggested that Instructors who consistently convey their high expectations for team work, and make these expectations known to their students, will find that their students complete and submit higher quality projects. The publication of project grading rubrics may offer a practical mechanism for establishing Instructor expectations. Initial introductions, coordination and work plans Numerous researchers cite the importance of maximizing team member interaction during the early phases of team projects. Napier and Johnson (2007, p. 44) Olson-Buchanan et al. (p. 414) and Wardell all recommend the exchange of "get acquainted" postings among team members. Wardell further concluded that teams which did this "had more overall communication during the project" (p.4). By utilizing socialization as a method for “establishing and reproducing trust relationships” (Nandhakumar, 1999, p. 47) this approach may help overcome the loss of trust which is known to sometimes plague virtual teams. UMUC Working Paper Series – Number 2009010 Enhancement of Team Work in MBA Programs: An Evaluation of Best Practices 6 Bryant and Albring (2006) noted that "each team should appoint a coordinator who is responsible for keeping the team on track and focused during the project and for interacting with the Instructor" (p. 250). They also advocated (p. 250) that a "team contract should be required, and signed by team members." In making this recommendation, they commented (p. 243) "teams depend on synergy among team members to collectively produce a final product that is more than the simple sum of the individual parts". The team work plan thus becomes a tool for enabling "team members [to] hold themselves mutually accountable for the quality of the final product" (p. 243). During the field research portion of this project, some Instructors reported that students “recycled” prior work plans, updating a previous work plan rather than creating a new one for use in the subsequent team project. One Instructor said, "Based on my experience with the same cohort groups in two separate courses, I found that team work plans do not change much from one course to another. In addition, it seems that students pay little attention to the team work plan once they have submitted it for review. In working with twenty sections of students where teams have done work plans, I have yet to encounter any team that has revised their work plan in 'mid-stream.'" These comments mirror the authors’ own observations, suggesting that students often do not appreciate the importance of the team work plan until after their project is completed. It is therefore suggested when team work plans are required, instructions should explicitly prohibit the reuse of previous work plans. Within the UMUC program, this parameter can be emphasized by the Faculty Assistants, whose role includes reviewing and offering feedback for work plans after they are submitted. The authors’ research has revealed that team work plans are often not graded, perhaps contributing to a lack of appreciation for the importance of this “framework” document. In this regard, accountability may be enhanced with some nexus to the team project grade. For example, a five point deduction might be applied to the final project grade if no work plan is submitted. Findings from the Literature and Field Research Team Organization and Management Team Selection and Composition Field research revealed that some MBA program Instructors permit teams to self-select, determining their membership independently. Other Instructors assign students to teams, and a variety of methods for accomplishing this was identified. These methods include: sequential grouping (alphabetic) based upon student last name; random groupings; assignments guided by student biographical information. One faculty member reports that he has assigned on-line teams by the geographic locations of the members. Overall, a single preferred method for assigning team members did not emerge from the field investigation. UMUC Working Paper Series – Number 2009010 Enhancement of Team Work in MBA Programs: An Evaluation of Best Practices 7 Numerous authors have noted that team selection methodology is an important consideration when seeking to maximize student learning and satisfaction with team work. Napier and Johnson (p. 40) concluded specifically that "trust and commitment are increased and fewer conflicts are experienced when students work in groups with others that are like themselves". They further commented (p. 40) that this is supported by the tendency for students to "flock toward others that are like themselves when allowed to self-select their teams". Shaw (2004, as cited in Napier and Johnson, p. 41) "claim[ed] that student experiences in diverse teams are more difficult than those for homogenous teams". Hamlyn-Harris, Hurst, von Baggo and Bayley (2006, p. 304) also concluded that homogenous teams provide the optimal structure for maximizing student satisfaction, stating "homogenous teams are more satisfied with their team experience [and] "self-selecting teams will be more productive and satisfied than randomly formed teams". Of particular note, Drury, Kay and Losberg (2003, as cited by Hamlyn-Harris, p. 310) concluded that homogeneity is more important for students who have limited experience working in teams and are not as well-equipped to manage difficult team issues which arise. It appears that in those MBA seminars where teams are not allowed to self-select, utilization of homogenous team groupings may enhance overall satisfaction with team projects. One approach would be to provide students with an assessment tool4 and require them to self-select teams based upon the results. Where resources are limited, however, there may be barriers to the successful implementation of this approach. In this regard, Camara et al. (2007, p. 247) commented that "for some Instructors…it may be impractical or too expensive to administer a commercial test to determine technical expertise and innate ability…[but] GPA can be used as a tool to achieve the desired degree of homogeneity". Finally, where homogenous team groupings are desired, team role theory may provide yet another model for determining complimentary personalities and preferences. According to Rushmer5 (1996, as cited in Bryant and Albring, p. 247) the two preeminent models in this area are the Team Management System (TMS) model and the Belbin model. It is noted that the cost and time associated with implementation of these models may make their implementation prohibitive in some academic programs. However, as suggested by Bryant and Albring, it is fairly simple to determine a student’s preference for working in teams. This information can then be utilized to ensure teams are not predominantly comprised of individuals who do not like team work (Rushmer, p. 247). Teams and Self-Management 4 Such instruments include, for example, the "Team-work Knowledge, Skills and Ability (KSA)" test (which can be retrieved at http://www.ramsaycorp.com/products/teamworkksa.asp for $13 a copy) and modified versions of the Myers-Briggs personality test. 5 An in-depth exploration of these two models, and a discussion of their similarities, may be found in Rushmer, R.K. (1996). " Is Belbin’s shaper really TMS’s thruster-organizer? An empirical investigation into the correspondence between the Belbin and TMS team role models." Leadership & Organization Development Journal, 17(1), 20-30. UMUC Working Paper Series – Number 2009010 Enhancement of Team Work in MBA Programs: An Evaluation of Best Practices 8 In light of the fact that MBA team projects ostensibly seek to provide experience with organizing, managing and participating in team work, it is not surprising that many MBA Instructors require teams to organize and manage themselves. Characteristic of the guidance provided to students in this regard is the following statement from the AMBA 650 syllabus: "Although individual Team members may take on certain management and editing tasks in the Team Work Plan, all Team members are collectively responsible for understanding and preparing all Team assignment material." Requiring teams to produce a work plan can serve as a meaningful way for Instructors to assist teams with their initial organization efforts, and ensure they go through the critical preliminary steps of establishing a framework. Further, the team work plan can serve as a “foundational tool” for ensuring a commonality of understanding, helpful in assisting teams to work through difficult issues. Team Communications Each course syllabus stipulates that all team communication and individual contributions must be posted in the teams' study group conferences so that Instructors and FAs can monitor team progress. In addition, individual contributions to the team effort can be tracked from these postings. Teams seem to have near-limitless technological communications methods for conducting their team business. These include both synchronous and asynchronous tools such as teleconferencing, email, Voice over Packet (VoP), and other web-based chat facilities such as Skype. In addition, in hybrid sections of the MBA program, teams may elect to meet in person. While teams may initially schedule these meetings during their planning and organizing phase, it is rarely possible to proceed with their project without substantial usage of electronic communications. As with any organization involving people with a range of personal and professional agendas, teams often discover all members cannot participate in every team communication activity. By publishing minutes of their meetings, teams can assist absent members in "catching-up". Individual Contributions Ideally, it would seem that a team project should be the culmination of one or more individual assignments, br

Instructor authenticity in mediating a sense of online community

Author: Starr-Glass David
Publication venue: University of Maryland University College (UMUC)
Publication date: 2009
Field of study

Distanced learning poses challenges for all participants. Creation of a sense of learning community in online environments can reduce student isolation, attrition, and sense of disconnect with educational institution. It can also increase motivation, enrich the learning environment, and build social capital. Based on an analysis of the communities of practice literature, it was decided to create a sense of community in an Introduction to Business and Management course (BMGT 110) offered by UMUC Europe. It was also decided to select course structure, pedagogic strategy, and online interaction that allowed the instructor deliver a presentation of self grounded in authenticity. The briefly reviewing the relevant literatures, the paper examines strategies employed in the deliver of the course, and analyzes participant responses to questions about community and instructor authenticity. Findings suggest that instructor authenticity was at least a modifying element in the creation of what students recognized as a sense of community.Instructor Authenticity in Mediating a Sense of Online Community by David Starr-Glass David Starr-Glass, born and educated in Scotland, has lived in California and Israel for the last thirty-five years. He currently resides in Jerusalem. His undergraduate degree, from the University of Glasgow, is in botany and he retains an active interest in this field. In California, he obtained an undergraduate degree in accounting and worked extensively in management and cost accounting in the retail and electronic sectors in Silicon Valley before moving into business education. He is presently an adjunct faculty member with UMUC, European Division, and a mentor with the Center for International Programs of Empire State College (SUNY) in Prague. David has earned an MBA from Notre Dame de Namur University, an M.Sc. (organizational psychology) from the University of London, and an M.Ed. (online pedagogy) from the University of Southern Queensland. His present areas of academic interest include organizational behavior, international education, and the dynamics of learning at a distance, which is the focus of this paper. Contact information: [email protected] Page 1 Instructor Authenticity in Mediating a Sense of Online Community Marco Polo describes a bridge, stone by stone. ‘But which is the stone that supports the bridge?’ Kublai Khan asks. ‘The bridge is not supported by one stone or another,’ Marco answers, ’but by the line of the arch that they form.’ Kublai Khan remains silent, reflecting. Then he adds: ‘Why do you speak to me of the stones? It is only the arch that matters to me.’ Polo answers: ‘Without stones there is no arch.’ Calvino (1997, p. 82). Abstract Distanced learning poses challenges for all participants. Creation of a sense of learning community in online environments can reduce student isolation, attrition, and sense of disconnect with educational institution. It can also increase motivation, enrich the learning environment, and build social capital. Based on an analysis of the communities of practice literature, it was decided to create a sense of community in an Introduction to Business and Management course (BMGT 110) offered by UMUC Europe. It was also decided to select course structure, pedagogic strategy, and online interaction that allowed the instructor deliver a presentation of self grounded in authenticity. The briefly reviewing the relevant literatures, the paper examines strategies employed in the deliver of the course, and analyzes participant responses to questions about community and instructor authenticity. Findings suggest that instructor authenticity was at least a modifying element in the creation of what students recognized as a sense of community. Introduction Distant learning may, in many senses, be regarded as an oxymoron. Distant learning is not simply a displacement of learners; it is the displacement of the learning process – distant learning is always distanced learning, and in that distancing there is always the reduction of social engagement. The construction of knowledge is essentially a social activity requiring language, sociocultural interaction, and ways of making comparative assessments of knowledge gained. While there is obviously a psychological and cogitative interiority, learning is embedded in a social matrix and it is through that matrix that we communicate, share, and makes sense of what has been learned. In its earliest forms, the term distant learning was applied to contexts when the educational institution operated at a distance from enrolled students: distant referred to geographic displacement. The implied emphasis on displacement between students and institution has more recently shifted as the impact on the educational process in which distant learners is better appreciated. Distant learning is increasingly understood in a more problematically sense, as distanced learners engaged in an isolated process of creating new knowledge. Distanced learners have to create and manage their own Page 2 learning environments; distanced learners are displaced from other learners – in time and in space – and such a displacement challenges notions of a community of learning, of a social dimension in the learning process, and of the active co-creation of knowledge. This article is based on a consideration of the theoretical challenge and personal practice of attempts to create a social dimension, admittedly tenuous – a sense of community – within an online course. The online course is Introduction to Business and Management (BMGT 110), conducted on the WebTycho platform at the UMUC, European Division and this article is written with members of the UMUC distanced education collegiate community in mind: readers familiar with the current version of that platform and familiar with online issues and practice. If a sense of community within an online learning environment is deemed desirable, then efforts must be made to create that sense among participants. The opportunity and challenge fall initially on the instructor who has the chance to construct, deliver, manage, and evaluate the online environment. The following review of one such attempt to create and sustain community begins with a consideration of different aspects and appreciations of community in learning, with particularly regard to the education of business majors and online students. While there are many suggestions regarding the creation of social dynamics in online settings, this paper considers the role of instructor authenticity in initiating a sense of relatedness among participants. After a general discussion of authenticity, there is a description of strategies and techniques used in an online presentation of BMGT 110 to introduce and encourage authentic engagement. Student feedback and comments on sense of community are presented and a review of student feedback is used to underscore remaining challenges, opportunities, and future directions in making the online learning environment one that acknowledges, encourages, and develops a social dimension. Social Learning and Community Benefit Social context has often been seen as a uniquely significant factor in the production of knowledge. In the varied, but complementary, works of Albert Bandura (Bandura, 1976), Jean Lave (Lave & Wenger, 1991), and Etienne Wenger (Wenger 1998a, 1998b), social context is identified as one of the primary forces in shaping the way in which learning occurs, in making learning experiences salient, and in reinforcing changed behavior. While such theories isolate and privilege social components, it is clear that there are many other factors that define and sustain learning environments. Certainly, contemporary social theories of learning are more inclusive and sensitive to the non-social factors that shape and moderate learning (Hughes, 2004) and are distinguish from more exclusive theory of social learning that privileges social setting (Wenger, 2004, p. 4). Social connectivity and an emerging sense of community are enhanced significantly by participant interaction and by the length of engagement, which is characteristically short for an academic course whether face-to-face and distanced. Before examining how Page 3 social interaction and a sense of community can be enhanced, it is necessary to stress the positive and useful outcomes generally attributed to learning within a social sense. These include an enrichment of the learning environment; a reduction of student isolation effects and consequences; a sense of legitimate peripheral participation for those who are looking towards professional or career trajectories; and, the creation and refinement of social and human capital. Enriched learning environments A social component of the learning process can provide learners with an enriched environment for exploration of newly gained knowledge (Conrad & Donaldson, 2004), experimentation with communication (Nagda, 2006), coping with personal doubt and subject matter ambiguity, consideration of deep learning approaches (Chapman, Ramondt & Smiley, 2005), elaboration of theoretical and personal narratives, and inclusion in a broader sense-making discourse (Wiessner, Chapman, Berardinelli & Jones, 2006). Learning environments are made potentially more interesting, more engaging, and more accessible to participants. Such environments are also more open to diversity and creativity when they contain a social element that allows participants to feel connected with others (Conrad, 2002). Reduction of isolation effects Distanced learners are often isolated and solitary learners. For some, this is a preferred way of learning: for others it is perceived as a difficulty. As adult learners, online students have to demonstrate commitment to learning objectives and the ability to mange time, effort, and motivation in achieving those learning goals. This can be difficult and stressful for many. Perceived social inclusion can reduce the sense of isolation and detachment often experienced by distanced and isolated learners, many of whom might be first time college students, returning to college after a long absence, or seriously conflicted about the utility of higher education and fear of failing (Lee & Chan, 2007). Perceived communal inclusion may also provide students with mutual support; increased self-esteem; serve to reevaluate educational goals; stimulate in-group comparisons; reduce stress and anxiety; and increased levels of motivation (Aragon, 2003). At the macro level, reduced isolation and a developing communal sense is most likely a significant factor in decreasing course attrition and increasing overall student retention rate (DiRamio & Wolverton, 2006). Legitimate peripheral participation Social contexts in academic settings may also emphasize possible bridges between current study and anticipated future, especially where that future is considered to be organizational membership or professional, or vocational, engagement (Wenger 1998a, 1998b). Distanced learners are distanced not only from the academic community of their institute of higher learning: they are also distanced from those who are engaged in communities of practice. This is particularly so with business students, who strive to acquire competencies but need the reassurance that such competencies are a legitimate Page 4 part of their future community of professional practice. Participants may come to appreciate that they are being initiate into knowledge that will extend beyond the college into future professional interest and practice. They may also come to appreciate that they are connected through this pathway with their peers. Social and human capital creation Social context provides the matrix for the creation of social and human capital (Portes, 1998). Social capital has proved a popular, albeit somewhat illusive, concept. While its nature and function might differ contextually, Coleman (1990) notes two characteristics common to all forms of social capital: “… they all consist of some aspect of social structure, and they facilitate certain actions of individuals who are within the structure (p. 303).” Social capital refers to the mutual trust, norms of reciprocity, and access to human capital that potentially come into play within social networks. These attributes are recognized and valued by students and alumni as evidenced in their use of social and professional networking, mutual association, and patterns of exchange that take place within these networks. Social capital can be created among students and faculty when they sense that there is a common commitment to teaching and learning (Cheng, 2004). Encouraging social and human capital formation in undergraduate learning systems may well predispose students to develop productive networks in subsequent professions and careers. Distanced students are challenged to belong to such networks not because of a lack of technical connectivity but by the absence of a sense that such networks can extend beyond the purely recreational or superficially social. Structural and Dynamics of Online Communities Much of the understanding of communities in learning contexts has come from individuals entering, learning, and being socialized into informal groupings, professions, and vocations. Such “communities of practice” (Wenger 1998a, 1998b) exist when a novice is seen as having legitimacy to enter into the practice of the group. Originally, communities of practice almost inevitably described situations where novice and practitioner were physically co-located (Seely Brown & Duguid, 1991); however, similar social dynamics can also be seen where group members are physically, or temporally, separated and never meet (Conkar, Noyes & Kimble, 1999). Such virtual communities of practice develop in internationally distributed work teams, where permanently distanced members engage cooperatively on research or innovation problems (Hildreth & Kimble, 2000; and Wiredu, 2007). The creation of any sense of community is challenged by the degree of common social interaction and the time that the group remains together. In learning situations where a face-to-face delivery mode is employed, there are limits on the nature, degree of authenticity, intensity, and longevity of an emergent sense of community. The result is Page 5 seen as a “bounded community” (Wilson et al, 2004. p.2), “learning community within a curriculum framework – bounded by the expectations inducing participation, but also by the timeframe of a typical course.” Communities of practice and bounded communities have three underpinning dimensions, which must be addressed in any effort to create a community (Wenger, 1998a, p. 73): joint enterprise, shared repertoires, and mutual engagement. Joint enterprise Joint enterprise exists when students recognize a compelling purpose and commonality in the tasks in which they engaged. They perceive interlocking roles and scripts for their actions. They also see possibilities for social engagement rather than for an association with a collectivity of individuals. There is an element of mutual recognition and accountability. While individual participants might be working on specific pieces, they appreciate that these separate parts parallel, or to some extent overlap, the work of other participants. Shared repertoire Participants recognize common access to resources and ways of completing tasks. In a dramaturgical sense, there is open access to roles, scripts, stories, acts, performances, and measures of critical appreciation. Members have shared expectations as to tools, procedures, and anticipated results. They have, in that sense, a commonly understood and articulated language that allows them to communicate and appreciate the presence and contribution of the other. Mutual engagement Participants sense a mutuality not simply in performing roles and producing outcomes but in relating to other participants; in establishing and relying on trust; in maintaining mutual confidence; and, in the recognition and maintenance of social cohesiveness and belonging. Participants recognize that there is something that binds them, however temporarily and however tenuously, apart from the centrality of the designated task. Based on these elements and the comprehensive analysis of online communities by Stacey Ludwig-Hardman (2003), Wilson et al (2004) formulated a model that identified a set of interlocking components that can serve both to create an online community and to measure the extent to which participants recognize community. Their model identified seven components: shared goals; safe and supportive conditions; community identity; collaboration; respectful inclusion; progressive discourse towards knowledge building; and mutual approbation. These components provide an instructive framework for establishing and analyzing the extent of community perception within an online context. Page 6 What is Instructor Authenticity? In designing an online environment – and hopefully one in which a sense of community can develop – the instructor is inevitably the initial formulator and implementer of a pedagogic strategy. Sometimes that strategy is clearly developed and coherently implemented: sometimes it is not. Sometimes the strategy seeks to create and sustain community: sometimes it ignores or fails to adequately engage with such a challenge or opportunity. In all cases, however, the dynamics that result within a learning environment are a consequence of the instructor’s pedagogic strategy, its implementation, subsequent in-process adjustments, and ongoing mediation. In online environments, behaviors that suggest psychological immediacy and social presence (Gunawardena & Zittle, 1997) have been associated with increased levels of participant attitude, motivation, and satisfaction (Conway, Easton & Schmidt, 2005; Richmond & McCroskey, 2000). Social presence and psychological immediacy signal to online participants that they have the opportunity to engage with another person using the provided instructional technology: the other is regarded as real and responsive. While attention has often focused on the quantitative measurement of social presence, another critical aspect is its quality. The suggestion in this paper is that participants do not rate social presence in a binary fashion – present or absent – but that they attempt to uncover the nature and quality of the others that constitute social presence, trying to develop a sense of the psychological dimensions of the other. It seems inevitable that in any attempt to create, or to recognize, social presence there is also a process of trying to communicate and interpret presentations of self. Through the creation and management of the WebTycho environment, through the selection, the implementation of pedagogic strategy, and through attempts to engender social presence online, it is the instructor who initially sets and determines an appropriate presentation of self. Considering that most BMGT 110 cohorts comprise adult learners, often with considerable experience and responsibility in their military duties, and taking into account the instructor’s previous experience with creating an online presence, the appropriate presentation of self in this present research seemed to be “authenticity”. Patricia Cranton (2001) defines authenticity as, “the expression of the genuine self”. With authenticity there is a presumed process of maturation, a sense of changed perspective, and a developing confidence in self and in others. Generally, those who teach in higher education are not trained in adult education and engage in teaching in ways that they intuitively recall from their own educational experiences. While neither intuitive nor obvious, reflective practice and a critical consideration of experience often lead to faculty becoming more authentic in their lives and in their instruction. Displays of authenticity are frequently attributed to more experienced faculty members who have engaged in a positive and considered way with the educational process and the fate of their students This career convergence towards authenticity is often revealed in the sequential self-narratives and longitudinal studies of faculty members (Carusetta & Cranton, 2005; Cranton, 2007; and Cranton & Carusetta, 2004) Page 7 Patricia Cranton’s work, originally developed from a grounded theory analysis of a range of teaching experiences in adult education and which reflects many themes in the preexisting authenticity literature, views authenticity as having four interrelated components: genuineness, authenticity, encouraging authenticity in others, and leading a critical life. Genuineness Genuineness is seen in terms of self-awareness, where the learner recognizes learning as a potentially transformative process allowing for the critically reappraise and examine previously assimilated beliefs, values, and assumptions. This provides the opportunity to become more open, flexible, considerate, and permeable (Mezirow, 2000). Authenticity Authenticity is viewed as a demonstrated consistency and congruency between values and actions (Brookfield, 1997). The instructor is perceived as having genuinely embraced the subject material, or as having subjected it to at least as critical review as any other adult learner. There is a sense that the educator is actively looking for questions and answers, and neither presumes to possess them nor wishes to communicate them in a passive, unquestioned, or uncritical manner. This might also be recognized in terms of a behavioral consistency that deliberately balances confidence and credibility with a presentation of openness and critical sensitivity (Brookfield, 1997), or it might be evidenced in an articulate

The Resourceful Pack Rat_ Collecting and Sharing a Multitude of Information for Rich Classroom Discussion - DE Oracle

Author: Harding George
Publication venue: University of Maryland University College
Publication date: 2009
Field of study

DE Oracle @ UMUC An Online Learning Magazine for UMUC Faculty Center for Support of Instruction The Resourceful Pack Rat: Collecting and Sharing a Multitude of Information for Rich Classroom Discussion George Harding Adjunct Faculty Graduate School of Management and Technology Published: July-August 2009 Category: » Online-pedagogy » Teaching-strategies In my academic, industrial, and military careers, I have always been somewhat of a pack rat, collecting bits and pieces of information that I felt would be of benefit to me at some future date. This tendency has proven to be of particular value to me in my educational career. Whenever I run across materials (newspaper/magazine articles, a passage from a book, etc.) that I believe may be of value in my classes, I create a Microsoft Word file to store the tidbit. These files are stored in a responses directory on my PC for reference when the item becomes a topic of discussion in one of my classrooms, which in all likelihood it will because the same topics keep reccurring from semester to semester. Each time I access one of these tidbit files, I tend to update/enrich it with applicable new information contributed by a student in the class. My response to a student will reference pertinent parts of his/her response along with comments from my tidbit file. My tidbit files tend to accumulate, and presently I have over 450 mini-lecturettes available for responding to students when a specific topic arises. Although class materials change over time, much of the material in my tidbit files is classic managerial principles and practices that are applicable to most classes. Each semester, about 30%-40% of this accumulated knowledge is used. Learning from Students/Subject Matter Experts (SMEs) Acknowledging that I may not be a true expert in all of the topics discussed in my classes, each semester I tell my students that I learn as much from them as they learn from me. This may not mean much to them, but it is very applicable to me because most of my students are SMEs in their chosen professions, making them more knowledgeable in their field of expertise than I. Often their postings on their specialties are very astute. Where applicable, I incorporate the knowledge they contribute in their classroom postings into one or more of my tidbit files and use their materials along with the other information that I have collected on the topic the next time I respond on the subject. In many cases, a number of files have been composed on specific themes which enable the discussion thread to be elongated with a series of responses. Tying my tidbits (mini-lecturettes) to comments provided by my students makes the material relevant and interesting and enhances student interaction in classroom discussions. Citations Care must be taken to ensure that materials used in the classroom are properly cited. In most cases, students are citing the material of others, so the source citation is used. Having a large number of cites in my postings has a secondary effect of encouraging students to perform independent research to support the information in their own postings. This independent, reflective research is one of the advantages of online courses (the students have time to research and include meaningful cites into their classroom responses). In face-to-face classes, students tend to respond with top-of-the-head superficial responses. Being able to support a position with citations The Resourceful Pack Rat: Collecting and Sharing a Multitude of Information for Rich Classroom Discussion - DE Oracle (standing on the shoulders of those who have explored the topic in the past) makes the online classroom learning experience more significant. Retrieval and Use of Tidbits It is difficult to remember all the topics in each of my tidbit files, so I maintain an index file with the title of each file and its main focus. In the first paragraph of each file, I record the last time the file was referenced. This reminder helps avoid redundancy, where I might reuse a file because I forgot that it had already been used in this course during this semester. When the item bears repeating in a later week's conference, this reminder enables me to cite the week and conference in which the item had previously been discussed. When the index file does not enable me to find the particular material for which I am looking, I can perform an electronic search of the directory to find a key word/phrase. When a topic applies to multiple classes, I will note in the posting for the additional classes: "In one of the other classes I am teaching this semester, one of the students commented: ~~~" followed by: "To which I responded: ~~~." This approach ensures that most of the applicable major topics within my tidbit files are covered in each of my classes each semester. Active Learning One of the most powerful ideas for teaching/learning that has emerged in the last decade is active learning. This concept emphasizes that students learn more and retain the learning longer if they acquire it in an active rather than a passive manner. Toward this end, I challenge each of my students to consider himself/herself the instructor in the course, bringing his/her special knowledge, experience, and research to his/her fellow students. My role in this environment is that of a facilitator (guide on the side, rather than sage on the stage), ensuring that all aspects of the topics are covered and contributing my own knowledge, experience, and research to the learning process. This approach encourages student participation in the weekly discussion conferences and results in an interesting and meaningful learning exchange for everyone involved. When it comes to knowledge acquisition, the Chinese proverb TELL me, and I'll forget, SHOW me and I'll be entertained but INVOLVE me and I will learn is very apropos. At the end of each semester, I receive comments from my students about how rich the discussions in my classes have been. Little do they realize that this richness has been supplemented by information supplied by students/SMEs from previous classes. I recommend this approach to all online instructors as a best instructional practice. About the Author(s) George Gordon Harding has taught at UMUC since 1998 where he teaches ISAS 600, Information Systems for Managers; ISAS 650, Organizational Transformation; TMAN 611, Principles of Technology Management; and TMAN 621, Systems Analysis and Operations Management. Before retiring from industry, he was involved with manufacturing engineering, information technology, and project management; he has worked for DuPont Merck Pharmaceuticals, DuPont, General Electric, and Baumritter Corporation. In addition to his industrial career, he has been an adjunct professor at various colleges for over 40 years. He earned his doctorate in education from Wilmington University, his MBA from the University of Delaware, and his BS in management from New England College. Before getting his college degrees, he graduated from the General Electric Apprentice Program as a Journeyman Toolmaker. He also has 9 years of military experience with the Army and the Air Force. Dr. Harding was the 2006-2007 winner of the Stanley J. Drazek Graduate School of Management and Technology Teaching Excellence Award, http://www.umuc.edu/events/_moreinfo/drazek/harding.html, and the 2005 winner of the Teaching Recognition Award. Rating: Not yet rated The Resourceful Pack Rat: Collecting and Sharing a Multitude of Information for Rich Classroom Discussion - DE Oracle Contact Site Manager Created and Maintained by the Center for Support of Instruction © University of Maryland University College Powered by ArticleMS from ArticleTrader.com Comments No comments posted. You must be logged in and be a member of the UMUC community in order to comment. If you are a member of the UMUC community and do not have an account, please register for a FREE one. If you have a guest account but are Faculty/Staff of UMUC please send an email to the DE Oracle Site Manager (mailto:[email protected]?subject=Please Update my DE Oracle Guest Account) so that your guest account can be updated. The Resourceful Pack Rat: Collecting and Sharing a Multitude of Information for Rich Classroom Discussion - DE Oracl

CIF2009_002

Author: University of Maryland University College
Publication venue
Publication date: 2009
Field of study

Exhibitions; Conversation; smilingAdelphi, MDStateside

CIF2009_048

Author: University of Maryland University College
Publication venue
Publication date: 2009
Field of study

Exhibitions;Adelphi, MDStateside

CIF2009_051

Author: University of Maryland University College
Publication venue
Publication date: 2009
Field of study

Exhibitions;Adelphi, MDStateside

CIF2009_089

Author: University of Maryland University College
Publication venue
Publication date: 2009
Field of study

Exhibitions; Public SpeakingAdelphi, MDStateside

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