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Research project on “A Study in Urban Air Pollution Improvement in Asia”
Get PDFThis final report of the joint research project “A study in urban air pollution improvement in Asia” is submitted by the Asian Institute of Technology (AIT) on behalf of the project team following the contract between AIT and the Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) for the project period of March 2015 - December 2017. Technical support is provided by the Asia Center for Air Pollution Research (ACAP) Japan and the operational support is provided by the Pollution Control Department (PCD) of Thailand. The project aims at characterizing the particulate matter (PM) level and composition, ambient concentrations of acidic gases, as well as the ionic components of rainwater at two sites in the Bangkok Metropolitan Region (BMR): AIT (Pathumthani) and PCD (Bangkok). During the sampling period of September 2015 - February 2017, 78 weekly samples were collected for PM and acid gases (filter pack samplers) and rainwater (automatic wet-only collectors), respectively. The PM mass and ionic compositions were analyzed by AIT while the EC/OC were analyzed by ACAP. The sampling and analysis were done strictly following the required QA/QC procedure introduced by ACAP. The source apportionment study for PM2.5 measured at the sites was done using receptor models (the Chemical Mass Balance (CMB) Model and the Positive Matrix Factorization (PMF) Model). An emission inventory of PM and precursors was conducted for the BMR for the base year 2015 and the data were used to run a three-dimensional air quality modeling system of Weather Research Forecast – Comprehensive Air Quality Model with Extensions (WRF-CAMx) to simulate PM in BMR for August and November 2015. The simulation results were evaluated using the monitoring data.
In the dry period, the average fine (PM2.5) and coarse (PM>2.5) concentrations at AIT (32 ± 11 and 44 ± 18 μg/m3) were higher than PCD (28 ± 10 and 41 ± 15 μg/m3) while in the wet period, the levels at the two sites were close, i.e. 15 ± 11 μg/m3 and 37 ± 18 μg/m3 at AIT and 15 ± 6 μg/m3 and 38 ± 17 μg/m3 at PCD. At both sites, PM2.5 mass contributed more to the total suspended particulate matter (SPM = PM2.5 + PM>2.5) in the dry period, about 42-43%, than in the wet period (30-31%). The average EC and OC levels in PM2.5 measured at AIT (3.60 ± 2.19 μg/m3 and 5.52 ± 4.59 μg/m3, respectively) were higher than those at PCD (2.75 ± 1.44 μg/m3 and 4.29 ± 3.34 μg/m3, respectively). The EC and OC in the coarse fraction (PM>2.5) at AIT were 1.07 ± 0.57 μg/m3 and 2.40 ± 1.97 μg/m3, respectively, that were also higher than the corresponding levels measured at PCD, 0.84 ± 0.55 μg/m3 and 1.80 ± 0.67 μg/m3.
At both sites, the most dominant anion species in PM2.5 was SO42- in both periods, i.e. the average levels at AIT for the wet and dry period were 2.37 μg/m3 and 4.10 μg/m3, respectively, while the corresponding values at PCD were 2.49 μg/m3 and 3.22 μg/m3, respectively. NH4+ was the major cation in PM2.5 at both sites that contributed 1.55 μg/m3 and 0.78 μg/m3 at AIT, in wet and dry period, respectively, while corresponding levels at PCD were 0.79 μg/m3 and 1.41 μg/m3. The source apportionment (CMB) results showed that the major contributing sources to PM2.5 in both sites were traffic (diesel vehicles) and biomass open burning (OB) but their relative contributions varied with season. During the dry period higher relative contributions from biomass OB (38% at AIT and 35% at PCD) were obtained
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as compared to the wet period (24.9% at AIT and 24.6% at PCD). The opposite was for the traffic contribution that was higher during the wet period (29% at AIT and 26% at PCD) than the dry period (27% at AIT and 21% at PCD) which may be explained by more intensive OB in BMR during the dry period. The full data set of PM2.5 compositions at the sites should be scrutinized to improve the source apportionment also by using the multivariate statistical model of PMF. Back trajectory (HYSPLIT) analyses showed that the weeks with high PM in BMR were normally characterized by the stagnant regional pathway of airmass while low PM period weeks were generally associated with the marine pathway of airmass.
Average pH of rainwater at AIT and PCD were 4.7 – 7.0 and 4.6 – 7.1, respectively, with the lower values recorded for the dry period and higher values were for the wet period. The average electrical conductivity of rainwater was 2.08 ± 1.65 mS/m for AIT and 2.02 ± 1.11 mS/m for PCD. The total annual wet deposition fluxes for different species at both sites ranged from 5.3 to 86.1 meq/m2 with the following rank: NH4+>Ca2+>NO3->SO42->Cl->Na+>K+>Mg2+. The concentrations of acidic gases measured at both sites ranged from 0.6 to 13.5 ppb following the rank of NH3 > SO2 > HNO3 > HCl. The dry deposition was calculated and the results were well below those of the wet deposition fluxes, especially during the rainy months. This implied that the wet deposition played an important role to remove sulfur (S) and nitrogen (N) species from the BMR atmosphere. The total sulfur deposition in 2016 was estimated at 586 kg/km2/yr while that of nitrogen was 2,235 kg/km2/yr which were still lower than the critical loads suggesting a low potential risk for the terrestrial ecosystem in Pathumthani at present.
Emission inventory results showed that on-road transport contributed the most to the total emissions of NOx, CO, NMVOC, PM10, PM2.5, BC and OC (37 - 65%), while NH3 emission was mainly from livestock (55%) and SO2 was mainly from industry (90%). WRF simulation results were evaluated using the observations at two airports in BMR and the results showed satisfactory performance for temperature and relative humidity, but not for wind speed and wind direction. CAMx simulation results of PM2.5 showed higher concentrations in the city center for all months which also reflected the contributions from the traffic emissions. The CAMx could not capture the hourly PM2.5 recorded at three available PCD monitoring stations for both August and November. However, the comparison between CAMx simulated and weekly PM monitoring results obtained in this project showed more reasonable agreement.
A better characterization of PM in BMR requires a long-term monitoring period. The findings suggest that the traffic and biomass OB are the key sources contributing to PM; however PM mass and composition data collected over a longer period would provide better source apportionment results by using more advanced receptor models, such as PMF.The model simulation for PM should be conducted for the entire year to capture the seasonal variation and modelling tools should be applied to assess impacts of emission reduction scenarios on air quality and health as well as the co-benefit to the climate forcing reduction. The results of this project provide the scientific evidence to policy making toward better air quality in BMR.boo
Twin Peaks: Japan’s Economic Aid to India in the 1950s and 2010s
Get PDFThis paper concerns the significance of Official Development Assistance (ODA) in Japan’s relationship with India. It explores how and why peaks in Japan’s ODA to India parallel the two highpoints in the overall bilateral relationship – the early post-war period (roughly to the early1960s), and the present (from the mid-2000s). It argues that whatever other purposes Japan’s ODA may serve domestically and internationally through supporting economic development, in the program with India ODA has politico-strategic utility in signaling not just to India, but also to the rest of Asia and beyond, Japan’s interest in strengthening this bilateral relationship to gain leverage in Asia. Early in the post-war period, collaboration with India was seen to provide an entry point for the development of primarily commercial relations with Southeast Asia and other Asian nations while lingering concerns about Japan’s wartime incursions supported resistance to other approaches. Currently, while positioned as Japan’s special strategic and global partner, and enjoying an ever more powerful economy, India helps open the way for Japan to extend strategic leverage within Asia and beyond. This is significant for Japan at a time when regional transformation, especially through China’s rise, is becoming instrumental in reshaping the regional and global balance of power, causing Japan great strategic and economic concerns along the way.research repor
Asia-Pacific and Latin : America Dynamics of regional integration and international cooperation
Get PDFRegional economic integration is stronger when complementarity and synergy effects are generated between “de jure” economic integration and close economic relations achieved autonomously through market-led /business-driven integration. This observation is important when we consider bringing closer the economic ties between Asia Pacific and Latin America. Japan has a large potential to contribute to the development of such economic ties. This is precisely because of the unique position that Japan has long retained both in East Asia and Latin America, and its catalytic role for the process of industrial development and structural transformation.
The industrial structural transformation brought about by regional integration and expansion of economic relations should not merely aim at achieving higher economic growth. Efforts are needed for the transformation to lead to a high-quality growth: namely, inclusive, innovative, and sustainable growth. Many East Asian countries have been shifting their policies intended to transform their industrial structure towards more inclusive and knowledge/technology-based activities. Likewise, in Latin America, proposals have been made to transform its industrial structure and aim for a more equitable society. The APEC Growth Strategy, adopted in 2010, has drawn attention from such perspectives, advocating the pursuit of “high quality growth.” Likewise, the Development Cooperation Charter of Japan delivered in 2015 set “high quality growth” as one of its goals in development cooperation. When Japan promotes the establishment of closer economic ties between East Asia and
Latin America discussed above, it could contribute to the transformation of the industrial structure and growth and development which is inclusive, innovative, and sustainable, and capable of enhancing resilience to disaster —all of which are aimed for by every country of both regions.journal articl
Foreign Currency Borrowing and Risk-Hedging Behavior: Evidence from a Household Survey in Cambodia
Get PDFForeign currency borrowing, a phenomenon sometimes referred to as financial dollarization, is a growing issue in developing countries. This study investigated the determinants of foreign currency borrowing behavior of households in Cambodia using household survey data; and this allowed use of the currency-wise information in tracking households’ financial activities. We found that Cambodian households engage in risk-hedging behavior against exchange rate risks, and are likely to borrow in a foreign currency if this makes up the major portion of their income stream. We also found that expectation of a depreciation of their local currency leads households to take out local currency loans in line with the predictions of theoretical models. Furthermore, education plays a role in the choice of currency for loans; the better educated households are more likely to engage in risk-hedging behavior, and to seek to match the currency composition between loans and income, than the lesser educated are. We also found that variables related to the use of financial services are also positively correlated with the intensity of risk-hedging behavior against currency mismatches. These results suggest that financial literacy has the potential to enhance risk-hedging behavior against exchange rate risks for Cambodian households.research repor
マラウイ農村部におけるインフォーマルな定期積立型 貯蓄・貸付スキームが担う経済的・社会的役割
Get PDFマラウイでは、商業銀行およびマイクロファイナンス機関による貯蓄、融資サービスとは別に、複数の農民により自発的に結成、組織されるインフォーマルな定期積立型貯蓄・貸付スキーム が全域に渡り浸透している。本論で検討する定期積立型貯蓄・貸付スキームとは、毎週開かれる集会において会員が各々金銭を貯蓄し、その後、必要がある会員に対して、貯蓄で集まった資金を一定の利息付きで融資し、緊急の際には保険金給付の役割も持つ金融ツールのことである。一般的に1年間を1サイクルとし、時期が来るとクラブの貯蓄総額と、融資によって発生した利息収益の合計額が、各会員の貯蓄額の割合に応じて分配される仕組みとなっている。 本論では定期積立型貯蓄・貸付スキームがマラウイで浸透している要因、その実際の運営および維持管理システムを一年間のフィールドワークを元に検討し、以下が明らかとなった。 本スキームが浸透した要因については、現金の盗難防止に有効であること、そもそも農民にとって公的金融機関やマイクロファイナンス機関を利用することが困難であること、また、マラウイ国農業政策の柱であるFarm Input Subsidy Program (FISP )に対する農民の不信が挙げられた。 本スキームの運営に関して、会員である農民が貯蓄を行う主な目的は、メイズトウモロコシ栽培にかかる化学肥料購入資金であることが明らかとなった。融資を実行するにあたり懸念される債務不履行問題は、貯蓄資金を担保にすることで解決されており、農民同士の人的結合から債務不履行は避けようとする農民の心理も浮かび上がった。また、ユニフォームに代表される農民相互の結合意識の強まりが、本スキームへの参加動機となっている一方で、各々の貯蓄総額の差異は、農民がコミュニティー内で抱く優越感や劣等感を生み出し、それらが参加動機や貯蓄心理に影響している点も明らかとなった。research repor
Effect of School Factors on Gender Gaps in Learning Opportunities in Rural Senegal: Does School Governance Matter?
Get PDFIn the international sphere, gender equality is primarily discussed in relation to the gender parity index (GPI), a female to male ratio of enrollment. This paper attempts to adopt a wider scope of gender equality that includes continuous learning and achievement. By using the data from 306 primary schools in rural Senegal, collected by the Japan International Cooperation Agency Research Institute (JICA-RI), this paper examined school factors that affect the gender gaps in internal efficiency and learning achievement by considering policy input and the environment at the school level. The results show that the existence of a school management committee (“CGE”), is associated with lower dropout rates for both boys and girls and that the amount of financial contribution made by a CGE is correlated with fewer gender gaps in the number of dropouts and the repetition rate. We also found that providing parents with a periodic report on students’ attendance and learning achievements as well as offering remedial lessons is negatively correlated with gender gaps in the repetition rate. Although we need to further investigate the mechanism that brought about this result, learning support initiatives may affect students differently according to gender depending on how one plans and implements them. School-level interventions should mainstream gender considerations so as to ensure gender equality in learning processes and achievements.research repor
A Comparative Study of Urban Air Quality in Megacities in Mexico and Japan: Based on Japan-Mexico Joint Research Project on Formation Mechanism of Ozone, VOCs and PM2.5, and Proposal of Countermeasure Scenario
Get PDFPhotochemical ozone and black carbon are key substances both for regional air pollution and global climate change. These two pollutants are so-called SLCPs (Short-Lived Climate Pollutants). International comparison studies among megacities with widely different conditions are effective in clarifying the formation mechanisms of SLCPs. A comparison study in megacity areas of Japan and Mexico mainly focusing on ozone, VOCs (volatile organic compounds) and PM2.5 was conducted based on air pollution trend analysis and field measurements including vertical soundings of ozone and meteorological parameters. In this study, co-beneficial countermeasure scenarios based upon the obtained scientific data has been proposed. Photochemical ozone, EC (elemental carbon; a major SLCP), and NOx (nitrogen oxides) and VOCs (NOx and VOCs are implicit SLCPs) need to be controlled to improve the regional and global atmospher ic environment. In Japan, countermeasures including the whole Asian area will be necessary because there is considerable contribution from trans-boundary air pollution. In Mexico, regulation of VOCs including energy shift and diesel exhaust gas control will be effective. These findings will be utilized to formulate and/or evaluate ProAire (Program for Air Quality Improvement) for the three studied megacity areas of Mexico.research repor
Breaking the Poverty Trap: A Psychological Framework for Facilitating Autonomous Motivation and Sustainable Behavioral Change in Development Aid Beneficiaries
Get PDFWorkers in the field of development aid, particularly those involved in capacity development projects, have for some time recognized the importance of understanding the psychology of aid beneficiaries. However, there have been very few psychological studies on development aid, possibly because there are yet few tested theoretical frameworks that allow empirical research. The aim of this paper is to present a theoretical framework that would be applicable to aiding, assessing, and researching the psychology of people facing difficulties such as extreme poverty. The framework is based on Self-Determination Theory (SDT) and also draws from behavior modification approaches. It is argued that for such people, as a prerequisite for supporting the need for autonomy, it is necessary to support the needs for competence and relatedness. Based on the modified SDT framework, aid paradigms such as conditional cash transfers (CCTs), the life improvement approach (LIA), the smallholder horticultural empowerment project (SHEP), and the freedom for enhancing empowerment (FrEE) approaches are examined, and future research directions are discussed.research repor
Identification of groups of secondary school teachers who leave the teaching profession in Malawi
Get PDFTeacher loss is rampant in Malawian secondary schools, resulting in depletion of skilled and experienced teachers and consequently compromising student learning outcomes. Using a mix of qualitative and quantitative approaches, the study gathered data from different practitioners. Analysis of the findings reveals that there are three categories of teachers who tend to voluntarily leave teaching on various grounds. Unqualified teachers who have not received an in-service training to acquire a professional qualification in teaching leave because they are denied access to certain benefits professionally trained teachers get from the education system. Newly recruited teachers leave because of their inability to cope with the school conditions. Teachers who did not initially choose teaching for their college training leave because they are not committed to the profession. This study proposes improvements in teacher training and management to attract and keep quality and trained teachers in the secondary schools. Further research is, however, needed to establish the significance of these issues in the context of Malawi.research repor