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Этапы развития конституционного нигилизма в России
Get PDFThe subject. The paper concentrates on problem of development constitutional nihilism in Russia.The purpose of the article is confirmation or confutation of the hypothesis that we can distinguish four legal periods in the development of constitutional nihilism in Russia, taking into account its criteria.The methodology of study includes historical analysis of legal literature and formal legal analysis of normative legal acts.The main results and scope of their application. The concept of constitutional nihilism is debatable. There is no single definition of constitutional nihilism. The paper analysis main definitions Russian and foreign scientists and offer new integrating definition. The criteria of constitutional nihilism are very similar to criteria of legal nihilism but there are several exceptions. Еhe following grounds for classifying constitutional nihilism are most informative: level of prevalence; the nature of the external manifestation; the nature of denial; orientation of the nihilistic attitude, subjects of negation. At various stages of Russia's development, the main social groups among which constitutional nihilism was widespread were senior civil servants, high rank military officials and even presidents and even Emperor’s family. The object of constitutional nihilism is the denial and non-fulfillment of con-stitutional norms, non-participation in the implementation of constitutional relations. Constitutional nihilism in Russia is closely intertwined with constitutional upheaval, conspiracy, and rebellion. Constitutional nihilism is dangerous not only because it changes the structure of the state, but also because of the surge of legal nihilism among the population of the country. The sources of constitutional nihilism are periods of upheaval and other negative events that push the highest echelons of power to deliberately violate the laws.Conclusions. There are four main period of constitutional nihilism in Russia. The table compiled by the author contains six historical periods and four legal periods. Each of them is based on criteria of constitutional nihilism. The next period of constitutional nihilism can be calculated, because most often it occurs after large-scale social upheavals, but with the arrival of a strong and influential leader of the country, constitutional nihilism disappears for a while.Статья посвящена вопросам определения понятия конституционного нигилизма и периодизации его проявлений. Анализируются конституции и нормативно-правовые акты, имеющие конституционное значение. Выявлены критерии конституционного нигилизма и основные этапы его развития в России
Закрепление принципов судопроизводства в Кодексе административного судопроизводства и в Гражданском процессуальном кодексе
Get PDFThe subject. The system of principles of legal proceedings is one of the indicators of the independence of the type of legal proceedings. The article analyzes the general and distinctive features of the principles enshrined in the Russian Civil Procedure Сode and the Code of Administrative Procedure.The purpose of the article is confirmation or confutation of the hypothesis that there is no independent system of principles of administrative proceedings that differs from the system of principles of civil proceedings.The methodology of the study includes the formal legal method, analysis, synthesis.The main results. All of the principles enshrined in the Code of Administrative Procedure are also enshrined in the Civil Procedure Code except some minor characteristics. So, the active role of the court, involving a number of exceptions to the usual rules of evidence, was also characteristic of the regulation of the consideration of cases arising from public legal relations in the Code of Civil Procedure. The court’s active actions to determine the subject of evidence, to recover evidence are general rules of evidence for all types of proceedings. These rules existed both before the adoption of the Code of Administrative Procedure and after it. But the specifics of the execution of judicial acts adopted in cases of administrative proceedings require special attention. A characteristic feature in the consideration and resolution of most administrative cases is the immediate execution of decisions enshrined directly in the Code of Administrative Procedure. Such a rule can be considered as a priority of immediate execution, which is a characteristic feature of administrative proceedings. The author doubts about the need for normative consolidation of the principles, as well as the need for a special list of principles of administrative legal proceedings in separate article of the procedural code.Conclusons. The absence of an independent system of administrative procedural principles confirms the thesis that administrative proceedings cannot be considered an independent branch of law separated from civil proceedings law. However, the priority of immediate execution of a court decision is a characteristic feature (perhaps even a principle) of administrative proceedings.Анализируются общие и отличительные черты принципов, закрепленных Гражданским процессуальным кодексом и Кодексом административного судопроизводства, составляющих систему принципов судопроизводства – один из показателей самостоятельности вида судопроизводства. Отмечается, что самостоятельных, отличных от других, принципов административного судопроизводства не существует. Высказывается сомнение в том, что закрепление принципов судопроизводства непосредственно в процессуальных кодексах оправдано как с содержательной точки зрения, так и с точки зрения юридической техники
Обеспечение доступности правосудия в Германии
Get PDFThe subject. The article is devoted to problems of institute of legal aid in German civil procedure law.The purpose of the article is to confirm or disprove hypothesis that financial support is the main but not exclusive form of legal aid in Germany.The methodology of the study includes analysis and synthesis of German civil procedure legislation, description of decisions of German Federal Court of Justice and interpretation of legal studies concerning legal aid issues.The main results and scope of their application. The right to state support for equal access to judicial protection, regardless of property status, has constitutional grounds. The fundamental aspect of the principle of the rule of law is the prohibition of unauthorized enforcement of legal claims, and, therefore, the need to go to the court. Thus, ensuring equal access to judicial protection for all, including the needy persons, is a duty of a state governed by the rule of law. An important guarantee in this case is legal aid. In Germany, this aid, enshrined in civil procedure law, is a special reflection of the General social and legal institution of social assistance.The author reveals the structure of the main costs associated with the conduct of the process and covered by the legal aid, as well as conditions for the provision of such assistance in Germany – personal preconditions and prerequisites regarding the prospects for the conduct of the process. The provision of legal aid does not exclude the risk of a poor party that arise in connection with the loss process and the reimbursement court costs to the prevailing party. In addition, the provision of legal aid does not exempt from the obligation of its subsequent reimbursement to the Federal land budget from free revenues.The compilation and maintenance of statistics on the cost of certain types of proceedings by the Federal States of Germany, which account for the lion's share of the costs of maintaining the judicial system, seems justified from a fiscal point of view. However, it does not mean that the judicial system as a whole should be subordinated to the logic of economic profitability of "services" for dispute resolution.Conclusions. The provision of legal aid in Germany requires the identification of a set of conditions-relating to both the person and the prospects of the case. However, financial assistance in the conduct of proceedings is not the only way to ensure legal aid, another is, for example, the simplification of judicial procedure. It is at the discretion of the state to choose the means of legal aid to ensure effective protection of rights, however it may not be possible without qualified legal assistance.Раскрывается структура помощи в ведении процесса, а также условия ее предоставления в Германии – относящиеся как к личности, так и к перспективам рассмотрения дела. Отмечается, что предоставление помощи в ведении процесса не исключает риски малоимущей стороны, которые возникают в связи с отказом в удовлетворении ее требований и необходимостью возмещения выигравшей стороне судебных издержек; кроме того, предоставление помощи в ведении процесса не освобождает получателя от обязанности ее последующего возмещения в бюджет федеральной земли из свободных доходов. Делается вывод, что выбор средств обеспечения эффективного доступа к правосудию находится в усмотрении государства
Правовые вопросы выделения новых видов национальной безопасности
Get PDFThe subject of the article is the typology of national security, and controversial issues of the selection.The purpose of the article is to identify causes of a large number of security’s forms both in theory and in practice, also to analyze acts in this sphere. The methodology of the article includes analysis, synthesis, formal-legal and comparative-legal methods. The main results of the research. The author focuses on the problem of types of national security. The author investigates the national security and methodological, theoretical and legal aspects of the classification of national security’s forms. The reason for the diversity of types of national security should also be recognized as the lack of a clear classification of them. Author investigates the mechanism for detaching forms of national security in acts of the Russian Federation in the field of security and suggests that new forms of nation security (moral security and culture security) should appear in base document of strategic planning of the national security. Moral security includes cultural, ideological, informational, psychological, scientific, educational, and religious security. Cultural security in its most general form is the stable existence of culture, the protection of this sphere from internal and external threats, for example, such as the emasculation of spiritual and moral values and globalization. Conclusions. The identification of new types of national security is an objective process due to the very versatility of such a phenomenon as national security. At the same time, it should be recognized that the sphere of spirit and morality in the context of spiritual security does not belong to the legal science, but rather to the field of philosophy and religion. In this regard, their inclusion, even as an adjective, in the text of the strategic planning document raises doubts, so the use of the phrase "moral security" in legal acts in the near future, in our opinion, can hardly be expected.Осмысляется проблема выделения новых видов национальной безопасности в нормативных правовых актах России, проанализирована Стратегия национальной безопасности Российской Федерации 2015 г. Сделана попытка объяснить многообразие видов безопасности, существующих в современной научной литературе. Подчёркивается необходимость классификации видов национальной безопасности в Стратегии национальной безопасности. Перечислены основные существующие в науке классификации видов национальной безопасности. Сделан вывод о недопустимости отождествлять вид безопасности и вид национальной безопасности. Делается акцент на возможности появления новых видов национальной безопасности Российской Феде-рации, не предусмотренных документами стратегического планирования. Предлагается выделение в качестве самостоятельных видов национальной безопасности Российской Федерации культурной и духовной безопасности
Участие высшего должностного лица субъекта Российской Федерации в муниципальных правоотношениях
Get PDFThe subject of the research is public relations concerning the execution of the powers of the highest official of the constituent entity of the Russian Federation in the sphere of local self-government.The aim of the research is substantiating the urgent need for legal regulation of the forms of participation of the highest official of the constituent entity of the Russian Federation in municipal legal relations, systematization of these forms and determining the limits of participation of this official in municipal legal relations.When setting the aim of the research, the authors proceeded from the fact that the independence of local self-government defined in the Constitution of the Russian Federation is not absolute and unlimited. On the contrary, the Constitution of the Russian Federation and current federal legislation provide the possibility of participation of state authorities, including the highest official of the constituent entity of the Russian Federation, in municipal legal relations. The research methodology includes general scientific methods, as well as some special ones, such as formal logic, structural analysis, structural-functional and interpretative methods, legal analysis, comparative analysis. The authors analyzed legal regulation in Russia and law enforcement practiceThe main results of the research. Theoretical and practical approaches to legal substantiation of the necessity of participation of the highest official of the constituent entity of the Russian Federation in municipal legal relations were formulated. The authors systematized the organizational and legal forms of participation of the highest official of the constituent entity of the Russian Federation in municipal legal relations and analyzed their content. This made it possible to substantiate a set of proposals directly or indirectly aimed at improving this model of public relations within the framework of the concept of the unity of public authority enshrined in the Constitution. The main forms of participation of the highest official of the constituent entity of the Russian Federation in municipal legal relations are: promoting the development of local self-government; interaction with local self-government bodies; participation in the formation of local self-government bodies; application (participation in application) of measures of legal responsibility in respect of local self-government bodies and local self-government officials; temporary exercise of certain powers of local self-government bodies.Conclusions. According to the special legal status of the highest official in the system of state authorities of the constituent entity of the Russian Federation, the combined potential of all organizational and legal forms of his participation in municipal legal relations undoubtedly allows to increase the effectiveness of public authority. Such participation helps to provide additional guarantees for the implementation of governmental programs for the development of local self-government on the territory of the constituent entity of the Russian Federation, to assist local self-government bodies in resolving local issues and vested certain state powers, to ensure strict observance of the law, rights and freedoms of people on the territory of municipalities.Обосновывается назревшая необходимость правового регулирования форм участия высшего должностного лица субъекта Российской Федерации в муниципальных правоотношениях, систематизации указанных форм и определения пределов такого участия. Проведенная систематизация организационно-правовых форм участия высшего должностного лица субъекта Российской Федерации в муниципальных правоотношениях и выявление их содержания с учетом складывающейся правоприменительной практики позволили обосновать комплекс предложений по совершенствованию нормативного регулирования в рамках концепции единства публичной власти. Сделан вывод о том, что участие высшего должностного лица субъекта федерации в муниципальных правоотношениях несомненно позволяет обеспечивать дополнительные гарантии реализации государственных программ развития местного самоуправления на территории субъекта Российской Федерации, содействовать решению органами местного самоуправления вопросов местного значения и переданных государственных полномочий, обеспечивать неукоснительное соблюдение законности, прав и свобод человека и гражданина на территории муниципальных образований
Неправомерное применение в отношении лиц, лишенных свободы, физической силы и специальных средств: криминологическая характеристика и меры профилактики
Get PDFThe subject. The article outlines the criminological characteristics of the ilegal use of physical force and special means against persons deprived of their liberty.The purpose of the article is confirmation or confutation of the hypothesis that the reasons for the unlawful use of force methods against convicts are related to the nature of the illegal actions of such convicts.The methodological base of the study was an analysis of 15 cases of unlawful use of physical force and special means by employees of the correctional facilities against imprisoned convicts committed in the period from 2016 to 2019. The author analyzed 12 sentences on bringing employees of the correctional facilities to criminal responsibility for the unlawful use of these forceful methods, as well as a survey of about 190 employees serving in various positions in the correctional facilities where unlawful use of force was carried out. In addition the scientific works of other authors that affect this issue were studied.The main results, scope of application. The criminological characteristics of the illegal use of physical force and special means by employees of the correctional facilities against imprisoned persons are presented. The article includes a description of such victims; a description of the circumstances of use of force; a description of the employees of the correctional facilities who allowed unlawful use of force; the reasons and conditions that contribute to the implementation of this use. Based on the above, some measures are proposed that contribute to the optimal solution of the issue of prevention of the unlawful use of force in the Russian penitentiary practice.Conclusions. The unlawful use of physical forces and special means was carried out against convicts who have destructive moral and psychological qualities, are characterized by a high degree of criminal infection, express a negative attitude towards order and conditions of serving sentences and do not obey the legal requirements of correctional staff. A generalization of the personal characteristics of employees who unlawfully use physical force and (or) special means indicating that they are characterized by positive psychological qualities in general. They strive to be guided by the regulations governing the professional activities of the penal system officer and are positively active in fulfilling their duties. The most probable reasons for the unlawful use of forceful methods of influence against convicts are related to the nature of the unlawful actions of such convicts, provocations, negative features of service due to the specifics of places of deprivation of liberty. Measures taken to prevent the occurrence of negative phenomena in domestic politics can have a positive impact on improving the functioning of the penal correction system, which is in line with legal regulations of a national and international nature.Изложена криминологическая характеристика неправомерного применения в отношении лиц, лишенных свободы, физической силы и специальных средств, включающая характеристику личности осужденных к лишению свободы, в отношении которых было совершено подобное неправомерное применение, обстоятельств его осуществления, основные причины, этому способствующие, а также характеристика личности сотрудников исправительных учреждений, допускавших подобное применение. Делаются выводы, что неправомерное применение физической силы и специальных средств было осуществлено в отношении осужденных с достаточно негативными характеристиками, отличающимися высокой степенью криминальной зараженности, проявляющими отрицательное отношение к порядку и условиям отбывания наказания, не подчиняющимися законным требованиям сотрудников исправительных учреждений. Наиболее вероятные причины подобного применения связаны с особенностями проявления противоправной активности таких осужденных, негативными характеристиками условий отбывания наказания и особенностями несения службы, деструктивно влияющими на сотрудников данных учреждений. Всё это необходимо учитывать при проведении профилактики рассматриваемого негативного явления в отечественной пенитенциарной практике, оптимальные направления реализации кото-рой изложены в заключение работы
Цифровизация контрольно-надзорной деятельности: опыт России и Франции
Get PDFThe subject of the article is legal regulation at the transition stage from e-government to digital government in Russia and France.The purpose of the article is confirmation or confutation of the hypothesis that in the practice of digital interaction between administrative bodies and individuals, there are problems that must be clearly identified and can be solved using the French experience of legal regulation of the digitalization of public administration.The methodology of the study includes comparative analysis, description as well as particular academic legal methods (interpretation of legal acts, judicial acts and state programs of digitalization in Russia and France, formal legal method).The main results and scope of their application. Russia and France are similar because of not only belonging to the continental legal system, but also existing in the transition stage from e-government to digital. Public administration and law in both countries have to cope with the challenges of digitalization. In this regard, the experience of implementing reforms in France, which is known for its administrative and legal traditions and successes, is of particular interest to the Russian Federation. The legal support of public administration digitalization is clearly lagging behind the rapid development of digital technologies; moreover, new information solutions are significantly ahead of their legal implementation. A comparative analysis between the strategic plans of public administration, relating to digitalization of control and supervision activities in the Russian federation, and the e-government's present and future legislative framework, indicates a lack of coherence between the plans and their legislative counterparts. The initial implementation of public administration digitalization strategic plan through legislation on services is generally supported in the “Digital Public Administration” federal project through the legislation of services. At the same time, the draft of the new Federal law on state control (supervision) and municipal control in Russia offers its own information infrastructure for control and supervisory activities.Conclusions. In order to overcome the fragmentation in the regulation of electronic interaction between private entities and public administration, the French experience of regulating the general principles of administrative procedures and guarantees of good public administration in a single act is very useful. Such an approach would also ensure compliance with the basic principles of proportionality and the prohibition of excessive formalism in the meaningful differentiation of errors and violations committed in the course of electronic communication. In addition according to French experience, it is necessary to maintain alternative ways of communication with administrative authorities including electronic ones, and consider any legislative exceptions. Also, it is necessary to define additional guarantees to citizens during interactions with technical support services; defining standards for the legal qualification of technical failures, pre-trial and judicial appeal mechanisms against automatically made decisions.Рассматривается переходный этап от электронного правительства к цифровому в России и Франции, известной своими административно-правовыми традициями и успехами. Отмечается, что правовое обеспечение цифровизации публичного управления пока явно отстает от стремительного развития цифровых технологий. Проводится анализ стратегических планов цифровизации государственного управления и контрольно-надзорной деятельности в Российской Федерации, с одной стороны, и законодатель-ной основы электронного правительства с учётом перспектив её развития – с другой. В целях преодоления разрозненности и фрагментарности в регулировании вопросов электронного взаимодействия частных субъектов с публичной администрацией предлагается использование французского опыта регулирования общих принципов осуществления административных процедур и гарантий надлежащего государственного управления в едином акте. Такой подход позволил бы также обеспечить соблюдение базовых принципов соразмерности и запрета чрезмерного формализма при содержательной дифференциации ошибок и нарушений, допускаемых в ходе электронной коммуникации. Также с учётом французского опыта предлагается сохранить, наряду с электронными, альтернативные формы коммуникации с административными органами и законодательно предусмотреть соответствующие исключения, а также закрепить дополнительные гарантии работы с обращениями граждан служб технической поддержки, стандарты юридической квалификации технических сбоев, механизмы досудебного и судебного обжалования автоматически принятых решений
Освобождение акционерного общества от обязанности предоставлять информацию акционеру
Get PDFThe subject of research. Issues concerning the exercise of the right of shareholders to receive information are analyzed. The focus is on the issues of exemption of a joint-stock company from providing information. The development of the institute of the information provision to shareholders by joint stock companies are consistently analyzed. The main trends in the development of this institute are shown: gradually narrowing the ability of shareholders to exercise their right to receive information through such means as restriction, differentiation and exemption from providing information. Special emphasis is placed on the institute of exemption from providing information.The purpose of the article is to show the main drawbacks of the existing model of exemption of a joint-stock company from the obligation to provide information to shareholders and to formulate directions for the development of legislation. The author's main scientific hypothesis can be summarized as follows. The Federal law «On joint-stock companies» contained an initial defect in the description of information exchange between a shareholder and a joint-stock company. The shareholder's right to information was not described, in fact, it was «embedded» in the obligation of the joint-stock company to provide information. The subsequent changes to the law resulted in a narrowing of the rights of the shareholder, practically depriving the minority shareholder of the right to information. This defect has led to significant legal uncertainty when the joint-stock company exercises its right to be exempt from providing information. This uncertainty should be eliminated, because the regulatory goals for granting joint-stock companies an exemption from the obligation to provide information to shareholders (article 92.2 of the Federal law «On joint-stock companies» that counters sanctions pressure) are absolutely correct. At the same time, some of the grounds for exemption from the obligation to provide information to shareholders (article 92.1 of the Federal law «On joint-stock companies») must either be excluded or reformulated. The author notes the complete «break» between the current regulation and the ideas about information exchange between a shareholder and a joint-stock company, that initially inspired the creation of the law on joint-stock companies. The inclusion of sanctions in the law on joint - stock companies as a factor affecting the performance by a joint-stock company of its obligation to provide information to shareholders should be fully welcomed. However, the legal and technical design of the corresponding political and legal idea cannot be considered optimal. In this part, the legislation requires a complete renovation based on the principle of balancing constitutional values and the interests of the state, majority and minority shareholders.Description of research methodology. The research is based on a systematic analysis, as well as the interpretation of Russian legislation and doctrine.Information about the main scientific results. The development of legislation on joint-stock companies in terms of providing information is shown. It is shown that if legislator taking into account sanctions when regulating the obligation of a joint-stock company to provide information, the goals of legislative regulation fully comply with constitutional principles, but specific legal decisions cannot be considered optimal. Conclusions. It is concluded that development of legislation on joint-stock companies has led to a significant restriction of the ability of shareholders to receive information. The author formulated the priority of regulatory goals in countering sanctions pressure and offered specific directions for improving legal regulation.Предмет исследования. Анализируются вопросы, возникающие в связи с реализацией права акционеров на получение информации. Акцент делается на вопросах освобождения акционерного общества от предоставления информации. Последовательно анализируется развитие института предоставления акционерам информации акционерными обществами; показываются основные тренды в развитии этого института: постепенное сужение возможности акционеров реализовать свое право на получение информации через предоставление информации через такие средства, как ограничение, дифференциация и освобождение от предоставления информации. Специальный акцент делается на институте освобождения от предоставления информации. Цель статьи состоит в том, чтобы на основании анализа законодательства и доктрины показать основные недостатки существующей модели освобождения акционерного общества от обязанности предоставлять информацию акционерам и сформулировать направления развития законодательства. Основная научная гипотеза автора может быть сформулирована следующим образом. В Законе об акционерных обществах был заложен изначальный дефект в части описания информационного обмена между акционером и акционерным обществом. Право акционера на информацию не было описано, по существу, оно было «встроено» в обязанность акционерного общества предоставить информацию. Этот дефект при последующих изменениях законодательства в части обязанности акционерного общества предоставить информацию (которые свелись к сужению прав акционера, практически лишению миноритарного акционера права на информацию) привел к тому, что при реализации акционерным обществом своего права на освобождение от предоставления информации возникает значительная правовая неопределенность. Данная неопределенность должна быть устранена, поскольку цели регулирования при предоставлении акционерным обществам освобождения от обязанности предоставлять акционерам информацию, установленные в ст. 92.2 Закона об акционерных обществах (противодействие санкционному давлению), абсолютно правильны. При этом часть оснований для освобождения от обязанности предоставления акционерам информации (ст. 92.1 Закона об акционерных обществах) либо должны быть исключены, либо переформулированы. Автор отмечет полный «разрыв» текущего регулирования с идеями об информационном обмене между акционером и акционерным обществом, заложенными при создании Закона об акционерных обществах. Учет в Законе об акционерных обществах санкций как фактора, влияющего на исполнение акционерным обществом его обязанности предоставить информацию акционерам, следует полностью приветствовать. Однако юридико-техническое оформление соответствующей политико-правовой идеи нельзя признать оптимальным. В этой части законодательство требует полной реновации на основе принципа баланса конституционных ценностей и интересов государства, мажоритарных и миноритарных акционеров. Описание методов и методологии исследования. В основу исследования положен системный анализ, а также использование разработанных в доктрине способов толкования нормативных актов и судебной практики. Информация об основных научных результатах. Показано развитие законодательства об акционерных обществах в части предоставления информации; сделан вывод о том, что это развитие привело к значительному ограничению возможностей акционеров на получение информации. Показано, что при учете санкций при регулировании обязанности акционерного общества предоставить информацию, цели законодательного регулирования полностью соответствуют конституционным принципам, однако конкретные правовые решения нельзя признать оптимальными. Выводы. Сформулирован приоритет целей регулирования при противодействии санкционному давлению; определены конкретные направления совершенствованию правового регулирования предоставления информации акционерам
Пределы применения искусственного интеллекта (правовые проблемы)
Get PDFThe subject. Possible problems that may lead to further use of artificial intelligence, as well as ways to overcome them are studied.The purpose of the article is to identify the principles of the legal status of artificial intelligence.The methodology includes formal-logical method, systematic approach, formal-legal method, comparative method, analysis, synthesis.The main results of the research. The basic approaches to the definition of the concept of artificial intelligence are examined, specific examples are given, the problems that can cause the further use of artificial intelligence are analyzed. Artificial intelligence as a complex computing system is characterized by: variability in decision-making, a certain degree of autonomy when working, as well as the ability to take into account the experience gained from previously made decisions and use it to correct them. The challenges that are facing both the legislators and scientists are identified, such as: determining the status of artificial intelligence, responsibility for its actions and, accordingly, finding the most acceptable way to transform legislation governing the use of artificial intelligence.Conclusions. Artificial intelligence, due to both its novelty and certain functioning features, causes disagreement in the scientific community regarding the permissible limits of its application, its legal status, responsibility for the results of its activities, as well as on many other related issues. Today there is no unity of opinion even in relation to the definition of the term “artificial intelligence”, which is largely due to the previously mentioned features. Therefore, in a world of continuous scientific and technological progress, where artificial intelligence plays an increasing role, we should continue to study these technologies in order to: firstly, determine their role and place in the future of humanity; secondly, to define the permissible limits of the use of artificial intelligence in order not to harm individual people or groups of people; thirdly, based on an understanding of the nature and principles of artificial intelligence, transform legislation in such a way that it best meets the challenges, which legal scholars will have to face in the future.Рассматриваются основные подходы к определению понятия «искусственный интеллект», на конкретных примерах описываются возможные проблемы, которые может повлечь дальнейшее применение искусственного интеллекта, а также пути их преодоления. Обозначены вызовы, которые стоят перед учёными-правоведами и практиками: определение статуса искусственного интеллекта, ответственности за его действия и, соответственно, поиск наиболее приемлемого способа трансформации законодательства, регулирующего применение искусственного интеллекта
Преступное сообщество: криминологический подход
Get PDFThe subject of the research is the criminal community, its characteristics, and features within the framework of criminology.The purpose of the research is to confirm or disprove hypothesis that a criminal community as a criminological phenomenon is nor equal to a criminal organization or an organized criminal groupMethodology. The author uses general theoretical methods (comparative analysis, generalization, deduction) and specific methods (formal legal interpretation of legal acts, questionnaires).The main results, scope of application. A criminal organization and a criminal community are different criminological phenomena that differ from each other in significant ways. The differences are both in the degree of criminal organization, and the complexity of the structure of internal and external interaction. From the point of view of a systematic approach, a criminal community is not only a more complex system compared to a criminal organization. It is characterized by an improved structure of internal interaction, in which the hierarchical structure is either complicated, or replaced or supplemented by a network structure. The peculiarity is to complement the system approach with a synergistic one: in the criminal community, the pooling of criminal efforts is carried out more effectively, mainly in the sphere of external relations. The criminal community is a more open system compared to the criminal organization. Certain features can be identified in the contacts of criminal community members with the external environment. The most important feature is a symbiosis of criminal and legal practices that affects the life of entire regions or relatively large masses of the population. The criminal community is a purposeful system with its own specifics. And this specificity is seen in the fact that the criminal community pursues (secretly or openly, at the moment or in the foreseeable future) the achievement of political goals, namely: the possession of power, infiltration into power, undermining power, its capture and retention. It is power, not wealth, that is the real goal of the criminal community, and not just because it is easily converted into wealth. Power is valuable in itself, because it also gives a lot of other advantages.Conclusions. A criminal community cannot be reduced to a criminal organization, much less – to an organized criminal group, and this conclusion requires to be included into legislation.Статья посвящена изучению особенностей преступных сообществ с позиций криминологической науки. Отмечается, что преступная организация и преступное сообщество – это различные криминологические феномены, отличающиеся друг от друга по существенным признакам. Преступное сообщество преследует достижение политических целей, а именно: обладания властью, инфильтрации во власть, подрыва власти, ее захвата и удержания. Подчеркивается, что именно власть, а не богатство является настоящей целью деятельности преступного сообщества. При этом, наряду с легальной властью существует криминальная власть, а также симбиоз между ними. Сделан вывод о том, что преступное сообщество не может быть сведено к преступной орга-низации и тем более – к организованной преступной группе