Shikoku University Academic Repository / 四国大学機関リポジトリ

Robert, Luxton

―　　―35
四国大学紀要，🄐 54：35 − 40，2020
Bull.  Shikoku  Univ.  🄐 54：35 − 40，2020
ABSTRACT
　　Lists of the greatest movies of all time are far from identical, but Citizen Kane is often near or 
at the top of these lists. One of the most remarkable aspects of the movie is its cinematography, not 
only because of the movieʼs innovative photography and sheer beauty, but because the cinematography 
plays in integral part in telling the story of Charles Foster Kane 
KEYWORDS : cinematography, deep focus, German Expressionism  
Visual Narrative in Citizen Kane
Robert Luxton
　　　Orsen Welles ʼs Citizen Kane  is  one of 
cinemaʼs most revered and studied films. Scholars 
and critics have taken various approaches to studying 
it: its screenplay, itʼs soundtrack, its acting and, 
perhaps most of all, its cinematography. This paper 
will focus on its cinematography and in particular 
on the way that visual elements, created both by the 
cinematographer Greg Toland and the director Welles, 
are integral to the story itself.  
　　At its heart, the movie is an examination of 
the public and private selves, and whether the 
private person can ever be known. This theme is 
highlighted visually throughout the movie. In a sense, 
this parallels the idea in Japan of the “tatemae” and 
“honne”. However, it is overwhelmingly an American 
story, a dissection of the American dream and the 
pursuit of happiness, the emptiness of ambition and 
material gain. It is also, at least superficially, a 
mystery. Through flashbacks of Kaneʼs life, as told 
by acquaintances, we try to understand the mystery 
of Kaneʼs last word: Rosebud. 
　　　The status of Citizen Kane in the cinema 
world is such that even if all critics do not put it at 
the top of their all-time best lists, few would emit it 
from their top five. What is so intriguing, and what 
leads so many to think of Welles as a genius, was 
that not only was Welles only 26 years old when he 
made Kane, but it was his first movie. The young 
Welles was famous before going to Hollywood for 
his work with the Mercury Theatre in New York 
and for an infamous radio broadcast. On October 
30, 1938, his group did a radio performance of H.G. 
Wellsʼ War of the Worlds that convinced many people 
that Martians were actually invading earth. The 
degree of panic that this caused is disputed, but what 
is certain is that it caught the attention of producers 
in Hollywood.  
　　　Such was the name that Welleʼs had made for 
himself that the studio that signed him, RKO, gave 
him an almost unheard-of deal: Welleʼs was given 
final cut. Final cut means that the edit, or cut, of 
the movie shown to audiences is the version of the 
film that the director, not the studio, approves. Very 
few directors are ever given this power. Woody Allen 
has final cut, as do a few very famous directors like 
Spielberg and Scorsese, but the proliferation of after-
the-fact ʻdirectorʼs cutʼ special DVDs is evidence that 
most studios like to retain the power over movies 
that they are paying for.
　　　That Welleʼs had final cut is certainly one of 
the reasons that Kane is such a remarkable movie. 
Welleʼs had the freedom to create something different 
from the mainstream, and he did so. Another reason, 
of course, was the subject of the movie, which by all 
―　　―36
Robert Luxton
accounts was first conceived of by the writer Herman 
J. Mankiewicz. Although many critics now feel that 
Citizen Kane better explains the career of Welleʼs 
himself, the original idea, promoted by Mankiewicz, 
was to base i t  on Will iam Randolph Hearst , 
who Naremore describes as “the multimillionaire 
newspaper publisher who was regarded as the creator 
of “yellow journalism” ﹇who﹈ used his newspapers 
to promote the Spanish American War and to back 
various jingoistic causes. ︵Naremore︶ An interesting 
insight that Naremore makes is that Welleʼs, after the 
panic the War of the Worldʼs caused, may have been 
“drawn to stories about proto-fascist demagogues who 
manipulate the masses.” 
　　　Citizen Kaneʼs cinematography is probably 
its most celebrated aspect. Again, because of 
Wellesʼs reputation before arriving in Hollywood, 
one of the best photographers in the business, Greg 
Toland, offered to work with Welles, who had no 
experience making movies. The irony is that it was 
because Welleʼs was a novice filmmaker that Toland 
wanted to work with him. Toland was reportedly 
tired of typical Hollywood movies. As Carringer 
writes, Toland “was a devoted rebel against the 
conventions and rituals of big studio filmmaking. He 
was always in the forefront of change, the first to 
adopt new methods made available by technological 
developments in lighting, optics and film stock” 
︵Carringer︶  
　　　Like any complex art form, great movies are 
created when all of the facets of moviemaking come 
together, when all of the stars align.  With Kane, 
the writing, the filming and the acting ︵Welleʼs had 
brought his troupe of Mercury Theater actors with 
him from New York︶ all came together. For example, 
without depth of character and story, beautiful 
imagery is only that. David Thomson writes that the 
photographic techniques that Toland brought to Kane 
were visible in earlier movies but that it took the 
brilliance of Welles to give it meaning. “Look at The 
Long Voyage Home and you can see Greg Toland in 
possession of all the photographic measures of Kane ; 
you may see, too, how little he or Ford knew what 
to do with them. The Ford film is senselessly pretty.” 
︵Thomson︶  
　　　Welles and Toland employed visual techniques 
from German expressionism of the time, such 
as deep-focus photography, ceilinged sets, and 
exaggerated low-key lighting. Bradshawʼs description 
of Kane and his second wife Susan at their castle 
describe the expressionist aesthetic. “The scenes of 
Kane and Susan together at Xanadu are eerie: an 
Expressionistic bad dream, all darkness and weird 
perspectives, the couple are marooned in the gigantic, 
sinister house, Kane prowling up to Susan while she 
morosely fits together a jigsaw. Kane wanders to a 
bizarrely huge fireplace and for a second looks tiny, 
and Xanadu looks like the giants lair rom Jack and 
the Beanstalk.” ︵Bradshaw, 2015︶ 
　　　In a sense, Welles and Toland, because of 
technical advances in camera, lighting and film 
technology were able to look back to the silent era 
of film. The crisp looking photography of the silent 
era had been lost when sound was introduced because 
the arc lights used in the silent era made too much 
noise to be used with sound recording. Arc lights 
were replaced by normal incandescent lamps, which 
were quieter but dimmer. As Carrington explains, “To 
compensate for the light that was lost, lenses had to 
be used at maximum aperture settings ; this reduced 
the depth of field and it could also soften the image.” 
︵Carrington︶ The soft look of early sound pictures 
was as much a technical necessity as an artistic 
choice.  
　　　In the quotation above, Carrington mentions 
―　　―37
Visual Narrative in Citizen Kane
the most famous aspect of the photography in Kane, 
the deep focus. What this means is that everything in 
the picture is in focus, which is very different from 
what most movies have. When lenses are used with 
wide apertures, the lens blurs everything that isnʼt 
the main focus. Still photographers use the Japanese 
term “bokeh” to describe this effect. In most movies, 
backgrounds to a greater or lesser effect are blurred, 
which is not only pleasing to the eye but also 
focuses our attention on whatever is in focus. With 
Kane, in contrast, everything is in focus. This was 
used by Toland and Welles to great effect.  
　　　Another photographic approach employed was 
long takes, which is to say a long time between cuts. 
There are a number of famous scenes in the movie 
that employ long takes ︵as well as deep focus︶ that 
will be discussed below. In modern movie making, 
we have become so accustomed to short takes, that 
Wellesʼs use of such long, involved shots is quite 
surprising to a viewer today. Some of the scenes go 
on and on, with the camera moving and climbing in 
seemingly impossible ways. A modern comparison 
might be the World War I movie 1917 by director 
Sam Mendes and cinematographer Roger Deakins. 
Music videos are the polar opposite of this, often 
having a cut every second.  
　　　In the early sound era, cameras needed to be 
insulated so that the mechanical noises of the camera 
would not be recorded. The result was that cameras 
become enormous and difficult to move. By the time 
Kane was made, technological progress had made 
cameras smaller again, and Welles and Tolland used 
this advance to set the camera free. The cameraʼs 
movement makes it into an observer of the action 
as it follows the movement around. Naremore writes 
that, “Here and elsewhere, the camera functions 
as a restless, ghostly observer, more silent and 
discreet than the journalists who poke among Kaneʼs 
belongings, but similar in certain ways. Like Kaneʼs 
own newspapers, the camera is an “inquirer,” and the 
periodic frustrations it encounters ︵a door closing, a 
light clicking out, a sled being pulled away︶ are like 
teasing affronts to our curiosity.”  
　　　The artistry of the cinematography all had 
practical aspects. Welles had come from the theater, 
which is of course technically very different from 
moviemaking. In the theater, scenes run continuously, 
which Welles adopted to Kane with long takes. Deep 
focus allowed Welles to adopt theatrical blocking 
to a movie. As well, Carringer writes, “the extreme 
mobility of the camera allowed Welles to exercise 
fully his special talent for elaborate choreographics.” 
This doesnʼt reduce the achievement of Citizen Kane. 
The fusion of theatrical staging and movie making 
resulted in one of the most memorable movies ever. 
That the visual aspects of the movie are so integral 
to the story itself is what help make Citizen Kane a 
masterpiece.  
Visual Storytelling
Opening sequence : The first image on the screen 
is a No Trespassing sign on a foreboding wire 
fence, behind which we can see some lights.  In 
time we will learn Kane has become a recluse and 
the fence is meant to physically keep people away. 
Symbolically, from the opening scene, we are being 
told about the public/private duality, about the 
defenses people construct to keep people out. We see 
the vast, foreboding castle that is Kaneʼs Xanadu, 
completely in darkness but for the single light at 
the top. We are shown vast, unimaginable wealth, 
but also complete isolation and loneliness. From this 
first scene, the camera movements give us a sense 
of seeing things personally, of being a voyeur. The 
lighting throughout the scene remains the same, 
emanating only from the single window, presumably 
―　　―38
Robert Luxton
Kaneʼs.  
Closeup : The extreme close up of Kaneʼs mouth 
when he whispers to us, the audience, his final 
word : Rosebud. The visual presentation of this final 
confession establishes its importance to the movie. 
It establishes the plot of the movie, which is to 
determine the meaning of this final word. What 
did Kane mean? What was Rosebud? Between us 
and Kane snowflakes can be seen, which suggest a 
psychological barrier between us and Kane.  
Snow Globe : Snow globes are a reoccurring object 
in cinema. They are specifically chosen to make or 
break, both figuratively and literally. They are both 
enchanting and threatening. Simple, and yet able to 
feed on the complexities of desire. They bring an 
aching reminder of the dream that was too far from 
reach. A barrier between reality and fantasy : then 
and now. Memory and fantasy distorting reality. The 
distorted image we see through the broken snow 
globe may be alerting us to the inaccuracies of 
memory. The distorted edges of the frame are also a 
clear reference to German Expressionism.  
Newsreel footage : Movies are often faced with the 
same problem, the problem of filling in the audience 
on the back story of the movie, the characters 
history, known in literature and movies as exposition. 
Many movies deal this problem clumsily, which is 
sometimes called an “information dump.”  Because 
Kane was a newspaper publisher, Welles could 
employ an inspired method to bring us up to speed, 
as it were : News on the March – like a newsreel 
shown before movies.  The backstory newsreels 
illustrate his history as a newspaper publisher. 
His life in headlines. The contrasting headlines, 
Communist! Fascist! illustrate the difficulties of really 
knowing any person. There are conflicting opinions 
about our public faces.  The scene also cleverly 
changes the pace of the movie, from the foreboding 
and mysterious opening scenes at the beginning of 
the movie to modern and fast paced. That it tells the 
story through Kaneʼs own medium is tremendously 
clever.  
Reporters meeting : The scene employs chiaroscuro, a 
contrast of light and dark. In this scene, the mystery 
of Kaneʼs life is being discussed. The scene is shot 
in shadows, with many of the characters visible 
only in silhouette, unknowable to the viewer. It is 
also, of course, visually beautiful. The contrast to 
the preceding, flashy newsreel with the darkness of 
the newsroom, is telling. Behind the façade there is 
darkness and mystery.  
Introduction of Susan : Filmed to look like one 
continuous shot, there is in fact a dissolve just before 
the camera ʻpasses throughʼ the skylight. When Kaneʼs 
second wife Susan is introduced in the course of the 
reporters uncovering the mystery of Rosebud, the 
camera arcs up to the outside of the shabby looking 
bar that she is performing at, goes through the neon 
sign, tilts down toward the skylight through which 
we can see someone collapsed over a table, and then 
appears to move through the skylight and down into 
the bar. The camera movement here again creates a 
feeling of personal point of view while also giving 
us the feeling of moving from the outside in, from 
the external to the internal reality of the situation. 
This scene is inspired and revered. “The nightclub 
sequence is filled equally daring visual conceptions. 
It opens with an elaborate descending crane shot, the 
first recorded appearance of the kind of exaggerated 
moving-camera effects that were to become the 
Welles trademark.” ︵Carringer, 71︶  
Childhood scene : This shot is a ʻoner ʼ , a long 
unbroken shot. At the beginning of the shot, we 
see the young Kane playing outside in the snow, 
―　　―39
Visual Narrative in Citizen Kane
unaware that his fate is being decided without him. 
The camera moves back into the house to take in 
Kaneʼs mother watching him. The camera moves back 
again to take in the negotiation that will see Kane 
taken away under the guardianship of Thatcher. Kane 
himself becomes the background of the shot, while 
his father is off to the side, away from the action 
and powerless to intercede. Seeing the young Kane 
through the box of the window frame may suggest 
imprisonment. At the end of the scene, we see the 
sleight, highlighted by itself, which slowly gets 
covered with snow.  
First scene at newspaper : Kane is sitting in the 
middle,  Thatcher is seen from the back, and 
everything revolves around him as he says : you 
provide the prose, Iʼll provide the war. Kane refers to 
there being two Kanes : public, private.  
Interview with Bernstein : his reflection is shown in 
the glassy top of his desk as he tells the reporter 
a deep truth about himself – both sides of him 
are visible, the public and the private – he says of 
Leyland : His father was one of those men who were 
worth 10 million and when he dies there are nothing 
but debts.  
First marriage : The use of blocking to show the 
partners becoming distant. At first, they are shown 
in near close-up, together at the same table and 
intimate. Then, a series of shots shows the passing of 
time and their growing distance towards each other. 
Finally, there is a wide shot with the two at opposite 
ends of the table, showing no interest in the other.
Election : this is where the German expressionism 
starts ; the picture of Kane, blown up like propaganda 
Election defeat : The film uses many low angle shots, 
but this one is the lowest, shot from a trench. The 
ceiling, the debris from the election and the floor 
combine to make Kane look small and trapped. He is 
defeated with seemingly nowhere to go.  
Jed Leland being fired : One of the deep focus shots, 
which required special lenses, lighting and blocking. 
In this scene, Kane looks past the camera, while 
Leland looks pleadingly at Kane while he learns 
of his termination. In the deep background, we can 
observe Bernstein, his only remaining friend, shot to 
look almost miniature.  
Old Kane in Mirrors : The reflections that multiply 
the aging Kane suggest that nobody is knowable 
in a simple way, such as knowing the man by 
understanding the meaning of Rosebud.  
Rosebud Burning : The mystery remains unsolvable 
and Kane, the man, unknowable.  
Final scene : Finally, in the most vivid clash of all, 
we have two endings : first the reporter Thompson 
quietly tells his colleagues that a single word 
canʼt sum up a manʼs life, and the camera moves 
away from him, lingering over the jigsaw pieces 
of Xanaduʼs art collection ; after Thompsonʼs exit, 
however, the camera begins tracking toward a 
furnace, where it reveals the meaning of “Rosebud” 
after all. In its last moment, the film shifts from 
intellectual irony to dramatic irony, from apparent 
skepticism to apparent revelation. ︵Naremore︶ 
Conclusion
Citizen Kane is, even so many years after its 
creation, a visually stunning work. However, visual 
beauty is not enough to make a great film. The 
visual elements, from the photography to the blocking 
of the scenes, needs to be intimately connected to 
the narrative of the story. This is part of what makes 
Kane such an indelible work of art. 
―　　―40
Robert Luxton
References  
Andrews, Nigel. “The Mark of Kane.” Slate. May 8, 
2011. 
Bradshaw, Peter. “Citizen Kane and the Meaning of 
Rosebud.” The Guardian. April 25, 2015. 
Carringer, Robert L. The Making of Citizen Kane. ︵4th 
ed.︶ University of California Press, 1985.  
Naremore, James. “Citizen Kane ︵1941︶” Film 
Analysis : A Norton Reader. Edited by Jeffrey 
Geiger and R.L. Rutsky, W.W. Norton & Co., 
2005, pp. 340-361.  
Thomson, David. The New Biographical Dictionary of 
Film. Knopf. 2004. 


Visual Narrative in Citizen Kane

小野, 健司

オノ, ケンジ

The Biography of Kiyonobu Itakura = The History of the establishment of “Hypothesis-Experiment Class” -1- ―― From Birth to Deciding to Become a Science Historian ――

横関, 恵美子

ヨコゼキ, エミコ

池本, 有里

イケモト, ユリ

児島, 知樹

コジマ, トモキ

木田, 菊惠

キダ, キクエ

山本, 耕司

ヤマモト, コウジ

Literature Review of families taking care of children with SMID at Home ― The Possibility for Utilization of Artificial Intelligence Technology ―

The Process of Nursing Studentsʼ Obtaining The Competency Required for Nursing Practice

芝崎, 良典

シバサキ, ヨシノリ

芝崎, 美和

シバサキ, ミワ

How University Students' Mental Health Changes Over Four Years

小谷, 航

オダニ, ワタル

本村, 衛由

モトムラ, ヒロユキ

瀧野, 佑

タキノ, タスク

小島, 梨沙

コジマ, リサ

田中, 志歩

タナカ, シホ

辻, 博子

ツジ, ヒロコ

近藤, 真紀

コンドウ, マキ

食用藍の安全性試験

須藤, 茂樹

スドウ, シゲキ

史料紹介「黒部覚書」（徳島県立図書館蔵「呉郷文庫」本）

富山, 晴仁

西嶌, 俊彦

TOMIYAMA, Haruhito

NISHIJIMA, Toshihiko

1．調査の背景と目的
英語の口語表現では理由を表す because節に命令
節が現れることがある。⑴のように命令節が理由を
表す叙述節（“our expenses are very high”）を伴っ
ている場合もあるが，⑵のようにそのような叙述節
を伴わない場合もコーパスや小説内で見つけること
ができる。本稿の中の下線は全て筆者が付したもの
である。
⑴ I only make US＄6000 in the whole year, and
even like the next two years, I was just like getting
by, because don’t forget that our expenses are very
high.
（Verstraete2005：621）
⑵ ...We also know that she put up a struggle but
we know she didn’t harm the person because look
at her hands. The only thing on her hands is her
own blood and the only thing under her fingernails
is her own blood.
Death of a Dream（Paperback Edition），p．18
Paul LaRosa and Erin Moriarty，（New York :
Pocket Star Books，2008）
富山が2018年に米国の Saginaw Valley State Uni-
versity（以降 SVSU）にて英語話者の大学生49名に
⑵の自然さを尋ねたところ，Very Naturalと回答し
た学生が32人，Somewhat Naturalが16人，Very Un-
naturalが1人であった（富山2019）。⑵のような表
現は，正用法ではないが概ね容認されているものと
言える。
理由を表す叙述節を内包せずに命令節のみが生じ
ている because節は，「指示のとおりにすれば理由
が分かる」と語用論的に解釈されると考えられる。
つまり⑵では，「彼女の指を見れば，彼女がその人
物を傷つけなかったことが分かる」ということにな
る。ここで命令節の部分が条件を表していることに
なるが，命令節が条件を表す機能は次のような文型
からも確認することができる。
⑶ Get up early, and you can catch the first train.
ところで命令節によって理由を間接的に聞き手に
伝えることは，because節の中でなくとも行われて
いる。その例を小説の会話の中から取り上げる。
命令節の Because節への埋め込みに関する調査
―― Go Get…Search…――
富 山 晴 仁・西 嶌 俊 彦
A Survey of the Embedding of an Imperative Clause in the Because-Clause
―― Go Get…Search…――
Haruhito TOMIYAMA and Toshihiko NISHIJIMA
ABSTRACT
This research note shows the result of a survey on the naturalness of the expression in which
the imperative clause go get…search… is embedded in the because-clause. The imperative clause in
question does not consist of cognitive verbs or perception verbs, the imperative forms of which are
allowed in the because-clause.
KEYWORDS : Because-Clause, Imperative Clauses, Cognitive Verbs, Perception Verbs
四国大学紀要，A55：69－72，2020
Bull. Shikoku Univ. A55：69－72，2020
研究ノート
― ６９ ―
Very Natural Somewhat Natural Very Unnatural
⑸ 0 2 16
⑹ 2 10 6
⑷
“Noel’s just jealo- Oh my god, have you searched
your own name in the last twenty-four hours?”
“Um, no. Does anyone really look themselves up
that often? Why?”
“Go get your laptop and search your name. Then
call me back.”
“Wait, Aubrey, why?”
“Just go do it.”
After I promised to call her right back, I hop off
the bed and change into a pair of jeans and black
T-shirt. I grab my computer from the cabinet and
boot it up.
Rock the Heart, p．78
Michelle A. Valentine，（Michelle A. Valentine Books,
LLC，2012）
⑷では「この24時間で自分の名前を検索したか」
と問われた人物が，その質問をした理由を「どうし
て」と問い返している。問い返された人物は，その
「どうして」に対して質問した理由を叙述文で述べ
るのでなく，「ラップトップを持ってきて自分の名
前を検索してみろ」と命令文で答えている。「自分
の名前を検索すれば，質問した理由が分かる」とい
うわけである。
命令によって間接的に理由の理解につながる指示
を聞き手に伝達できるのであれば，⑵のように be-
cause節に命令節を埋め込むことが可能であること
も納得できる。ところが because節内に命令節が現
れる場合，命令法となっている動詞は認識動詞や知
覚動詞であり，移動動詞や授受動詞なのではないと
される。1），2）
本研究ノートの目的は，認識動詞を使用していな
いが，理由を間接的に表していると文脈から解釈す
ることができる⑷の命令節 “Go get your laptop
and search your name.” を because節内に埋め込ん
だ際の自然さについて調査することである。
2．調査方法
調査は2019年に SVSUにて英語話者の大学生を
対象に行った。調査の計画は富山が，SVSUでの調
査の実施は西嶌が行った。
学生には⑷のパッセージに続けて，問題となる命
令節の前に becauseを置いた表現を提示し，その自
然さを判断して Very Natural, Somewhat Natural,
Very Unnaturalの中の1つを選ぶように求めた。
⑸
Because go get your laptop and search your name.
A. Very Natural B. Somewhat Natural
C. Very Unnatural
さらに becauseの後ろにカンマを置いた場合の自
然さも尋ねた。これは，becauseと命令節の間にカ
ンマを用いた表現も見られるからである。
⑹
Because, go get your laptop and search your name.
A. Very Natural B. Somewhat Natural
C. Very Unnatural
3．調査結果と考察
18名の英語話者の大学生より下記の回答が得られ
た。
⑺
カンマを挟まずに命令節を becauseの直後に置い
たものは，Very Naturalと答えた者がおらず，一方
Very Unnaturalと答えた者が全体の約89パーセント
にあたる16名となった。
富山晴仁・西嶌俊彦
― ７０ ―
命令節と becauseの間にカンマを挟んだ場合は，
Somewhat Naturalが10名と一番多くなった。Very
Naturalと答える者も2名いて，カンマを挿入した
ことによって自然さが上昇したことがうかがえる。
カンマの存在により容認度が上がる点に関しては，
⑹のようなカンマがない文を英語話者に見せる際に
しばしば指摘されることである。しかしながら認識
動詞を用いている⑵と比較すると，⑹の容認度はや
はり高くないと言える。特に注目すべき点は，⑵は
カンマが becauseと命令節の間に現れていないにも
関わらず，⑹よりもずっと自然だと判断されている
ことである。
以上の結果から go get…search…が主要部となっ
ている命令節は，「指示に従えば理由が分かる」と
いう推論による解釈が成り立つ文脈の中にあるにも
関わらず，because節内に埋め込むと認識動詞や知
覚動詞を用いた命令節と比較した場合に容認度が劣
るということが判明した。
4．今後の課題
今後同様の調査をするにあたっては改善すべき点
がいくつかある。
今回使用した例では，命令法となる動詞が複数使
用されている。この複雑さが自然さの判断に影響し
たかもしれない。特に⑵との比較をする場合には，
命令法の動詞を一つにしておくべきであった。次回
は作例することも含めて，一つの動詞からなる命令
節を調査に使用するよう配慮したい。
また，概ね容認されていると思われる⑵との比較
を行ったが，⑵と⑸⑹のインフォーマントは同一で
はない。次回の調査では，認識動詞・知覚動詞を用
いた文も同時に判断してもらって，その結果と比較
するようにしたい。
註
1）Takahashi（2012）は，because節に現れる叙述節を
伴う命令節を分析する中で，使用されている動詞が認
識動詞であることを指摘している。なお叙述節を伴わ
ない認識動詞による命令節の例は⑵である。認識動詞
に加えて，知覚動詞も because節内に命令法で現れる
ことが可能であることを示す例が存在する。（i）では，
because節内の命令節“look at this”で発話者の動作を
見ることを指示し，見ることで得られる視覚的情報に
よって理由を伝えようとしている。
⒤ He pointed an accusing finger at the inanimate time
machine. ‘But how long does it take to diffuse an
atomic explosion? Tell me that? It had better be soon
enough, because look at this.’ He cupped his hand and
turned it upside down, flicking his gaze from the
ground to the TARDIS as a small cloud of sand lifted
itself from the dusty road and ascended towards his
palm,...
Doctor Who : Nuclear Time（Paperback Edition），
p．87
Oli Smith，（London, BBC Books，2015）
2）認識動詞でも知覚動詞でもない動詞を用いた例が，
Corpus of Contemporary American Englishに存在した
（i）である。富山が2018年に SVSUの英語話者の49
人の大学生に自然さを判断してもらったところ，Very
Naturalが9名，Somewhat Naturalが24名，Very Unnatu-
ralが16名であった。因みに SVSUの学生とは異なる
英語話者数名に“try to”を取った場合と取らない場合
とでの自然さを尋ねたところ，全員が“try to”が無い
と不自然さが増すと答えた。
⒤ Ms-THOMAS : I don’t know if they would be able
to hold these pants because try to hold these.
GIFFORD : Oh.
KOTB : Weights in them?
参考文献
Takahashi, Hidemitsu（2012）A Cognitive Linguistic Analy-
sis of the English Imperative : With Special Reference
to Japanese Imperatives, Amsterdam/ Philadelphia : John
Benjamins Publishing Company.
Verstraete, Jean-Christophe（2005）“Two Types of Coordi-
nation in Clause Combining,” Lingua115：611－626．
富山晴仁（2019）「Because＋命令文の時間に関する調査」
『四国大学紀要人文・社会科学編』第52号，四国大学
命令節の Because節への埋め込みに関する調査―― Go Get…Search…――
― ７１ ―
抄 録
本研究ノートは，because節内に現れることが可能である認識動詞や知覚動詞ではない go get…
search…が主要部である命令節を because節の中に埋め込んだ場合の自然さについて調査したもの
である。
キーワード：Because節，命令節，認識動詞，知覚動詞
富山晴仁・西嶌俊彦
― ７２ ―


A Survey of the Embedding of an Imperative Clause in the Because-Clause　-Go Get... Search...-

勝浦, 美和

カツウラ, ミワ

KATSUURA, Miwa

In-School Staff Development in Kindergarten that fosters the self-esteem of children in early childhood

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