Proceedings Published by the LSA (Linguistic Society of America)
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Cause, Make, and Force as Graded Causatives
Full text linkWe investigate the semantics of the causal verbs cause, make, and force as used in the construction X {caused/made/forced} Y (to) Z. The predominant approach to analyzing verbs of causing has been to argue that they convey some version of SUFFICIENCY, but it has also been suggested that INTENTION or possible ALTERNATIVES may also factor into the semantics of the verbs. Using sequences of tic-tac-toe states as experimental stimuli, we measure the three possible contributing factors in each stimuli and ask participants whether each verb is appropriate for describing the sequence. We find experimental support for a differentiating semantics of these verbs, in which no single predictor is the sole factor in when each verb is appropriate
Coloring disjunction in child Romanian
Full text linkRomanian children have been shown to rarely interpret the complex disjunction sau…sau ‘either...or’ (as in sau trenul sau barca ‘either the train or the boat’) exclusively (that is, as ‘only one, not both’) in Truth Value Judgment Tasks. Instead, children often favor an inclusive interpretation (‘one or both’), or a conjunctive interpretation (‘both, not just one’) (Bleotu et al. 2023, 2024a). Such findings contrast with those from Romanian adults, who consistently interpret this disjunction exclusively. In this study, we investigate whether children interpret sau...sau more exclusively in a Coloring Book Task (CBT), given previous evidence that children’s performance is more adult-like in tasks involving coloring rather than in truth value judgment tasks. In line with this expectation, we observed an increase in the number of exclusive-responding children compared to previous findings for Romanian. However, it is important to highlight that most children still did not interpret the disjunction exclusively, indicating ongoing challenges with the interpretation of disjunction around the age of five years
Modeling the prompt in inference judgment tasks
Full text linkWe show that when analyzing data from inference judgment tasks, it can be important to incorporate into one\u27s data analysis regime an explicit representation of the semantics of the natural language prompt used to guide participants on the task. To demonstrate this, we conduct two experiments within an existing experimental paradigm focused on measuring factive inferences, while manipulating the prompt participants receive in small but semantically potent ways. In statistical model comparisons couched within the framework of probabilistic dynamic semantics, we find that probabilistic models structured, in part, by the semantics of the prompt fit better to data collected using that prompt than models that ignore the semantics of the prompt
"Liz can buy a croissant or donut. That’s both together, right?" Distinguishing target Free Choice from non-target Modal Conjunction in Child French
Full text linkSeveral acquisition studies have reported that children draw free choice inferences at adult-like rates from modal disjunctive statements. This study explores an alternative explanation for children’s seemingly adult-like behavior: modal conjunction, which shares verifying and falsifying conditions with free choice. However, existing experimental setups were not able to distinguish the two. With our novel design, we were able to set apart modal conjunctive interpreters from genuine free choice interpreters, using a new type of condition: a mutually exclusive context. The results revealed that free choice inferences are not so early acquired as previously thought. In contrast to the earlier studies, only half of the children between 4 and 6 were genuine adult-like free choice interpreters. The other children either show the basic inclusive interpretation of disjunction, or, as hypothesized, a modal conjunctive interpretation
A conceptual analysis of verbs of pushing and pulling
Full text linkAlthough verbal expressions of caused motion, such as push and pull, have been extensively studied within linguistics, semantic dimensions beyond path and manner of motion have received less attention. This pilot study aims to identify such dimensions involved in the expression of caused motion in German, focusing on observable properties of pushing and pulling events that determine the selection of verbs to describe events of caused motion. Using 3D graphical modeling, participants were presented with video clips of a computer-animated agent moving a barrel, thereby allowing for a systematic manipulation of properties and hence dimensions. We investigated four dimensions to assess their impact on verb selection: (i) angle of contact, (ii) movement of the agent relative to the barrel, (iii) the agent’s orientation/facing, and (iv) the force employed. Cluster and principal component analyses were conducted on the collected linguistic data. Verbs were represented by five-dimensional vectors capturing correlations with the cosine and sine of the angle, and marginal probabilities in conditions of instantaneous movement, forward facing, and heavy force. Our findings indicate that conceptually distinguishable verb clusters are primarily defined by the movement feature – that is, whether the agent moves together with the barrel or not – and the cosine of the angle. Contrary to theoretical predictions, little evidence was found supporting the categorization of verbs based on the force applied to the barrel. These results suggest that the movement and position of the agent relative to the moved object are key determinants in the production of verbal descriptions of caused motion events
Question embedding without wh-interrogatives: A unified account
Full text linkWe present a novel analysis of indirect Q-NP-questions in Akan (Kwa, Niger Congo), which come in the form of relativized NPs without wh-syntax. We propose a unified analysis of Akan Q-NPs (Zimmermann 2018) and their English wh-counterparts on which a covert Q-operator abstracts over a variable expressed by a REL- or a wh-pronoun, respectively. Akan Q-NPs are licit because the language has cross-categorical operators (Det, Q), which can attach to NP- and clausal constituents alike. The analysis accounts for the varying EXH-strength of such Q-NPs in Akan, and it is extendable to other non Indoeuropean languages with Q-NPs. More generally, there seem to be two subtypes of NP/DP-based embedded questions in natural language: English-type Concealed Questions with a specificational meaning, and Akan-type Q-NPs with a standard Hamblin-question semantics
Only ‘only’ only: A distributed meaning approach to exclusive doubling
Full text linkCross-linguistically, exclusive particles ‘only’ may be doubled with a single focus association, giving rise to an apparent form-meaning mismatch. Focusing on an understudied case of doubling of exclusive adverbial particle zinghai and sentence-final particle (SFP) zaa3 in Cantonese, this study refines the operator-particle approach (e.g., Quek & Hirsch 2017) and argues for a novel view where exclusive doubling instantiates a scalar focus structure. I demonstrate that both particles have focus-sensitive contributions: zinghai encodes at-issue exclusivity and zaa3 encodes not-at-issue scalar meaning. I further propose that zaa3 is semantically dependent on zinghai, and acquires access to the lower alternative set quantified by zinghai via co-indexation of Roothian Ci (Rooth 1992). This view not only implicates that there is more than one way to access lower alternatives across another focus operator (cf. Bade & Sachs 2019; Erlewine 2024), but it also offers a possible answer to why languages allow exclusive focus particles to be doubled
Child and caregiver language in two different play contexts
Full text linkThis study examined the types of utterances that parents use when speaking to their 36-month-old children (US-based, English-speaking, N = 18) in two tasks: a semi-naturalistic free-play task and a highly structured goal-oriented task, and if utterance type was associated with child talkativeness. Transcripts of parent-child interactions in the two tasks were coded for pragmatic function. Results revealed that parents produced more directives in the structured task compared to the semi-naturalistic task. Within directives, parents produced proportionally more supportive directives that followed their child’s focus of attention in the structured task, and proportionally more intrusive directives intended to shift the child’s focus of attention in the semi-naturalistic task. The more directives parents produced, the fewer conversational turns the child took per second, although this was primarily driven by performance in the structured task. These findings highlight the importance of considering context when studying caregiver language input in interactions
Adjectives are not verbs in Iu Mien
Full text linkIn Iu Mien (Hmong-Mien; ISO: ium), adjective-like or property concept words such as \u27long\u27 and \u27green\u27 have been claimed to be lexicalized as verbs rather than adjectives (Court 1985, Arisawa 2016). We argue that Iu Mien indeed has adjectives as a distinct lexical category. We present evidence from word order, tone sandhi, and a class of exceptional adjectives, showing that adjectives differ in their syntactic and phonological behavior from verbal modifiers
The pragmatics of propositional anaphora in English
Full text linkEnglish employs a variety of devices to refer back to propositions, including demonstratives, the null complement anaphor, the pronominal it and the proform so. The last of these shows a relatively limited distribution. The relative distribution of it and so has been the subject of much inquiry. In this paper, I examine their differences in responses to polar questions, in response to assertions and in the context of anaphora to embedded propositions. I make the novel observation that believe with an overt source argument tracks with it and not so in these contexts. This observation inspires a novel approach to restricted distribution of so and its characteristic effect on interpretation. The notion of a sourced doxastic background is introduced as the basis of the semantics for doxastic attitude predicates. This new notion allows evidential distinctions between predicates to be encoded