Journal for Deradicalization
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After They Leave: Exploring Post-exit Distress in Former Violent Extremists
Full text linkThis exploratory study provides foundational knowledge on the post-exit process experienced by former members of violent extremist groups. While disengagement from violent extremism and the transition to mainstream society is known to involve change and adaptation, little is known about the post-exit life of former violent extremists. For this study, ten former violent extremists, and six practitioners who work on facilitating exit and reintegration, were interviewed. This led to a comprehensive identification of post-exit stressors and the subsequent creation of an exploratory framework of post-exit distress with four dimensions: 1) Daily Life & Social, 2) Psychological & Physical Well-being, 3) Safety & Consequences, and 4) Transition & Identity. Post-exit stressors may stem from radicalization, involvement in violent extremism, disengagement, or the transition back to non-extremist life. The findings show that internal and external stressors are plentiful, vary in frequency and magnitude, and are most dominant in the first 1-2 years after disengagement. The 97 stressors expressed by former violent extremists and practitioners indicate that post-exit distress is not only wide ranging, but highly disruptive, and sometimes unmanageable. Left unaddressed, such stressors can profoundly hinder efforts to rebuild a life outside of violent extremism. This has implications for evidence-based reintegration efforts and future studies
Research Note: The role of ideas in radicalization to terrorism: Ideology and narrative vs. diagnostic, prognostic, and motivational action frames
Full text linkThe concepts of ideology and narrative have become popular in efforts to understand the role of ideas in radicalization to terrorism. This review finds that definitions of these concepts in terrorism research are inconsistent and seldom linked with measurement, and that references to these concepts can often be interpreted as one or more of the three dimensions of a collective action frame. These three dimensions--diagnostic, prognostic, and motivational framing--are relatively easy to define and measure; poll items tapping the three dimensions can track progress in the war of ideas against terrorism. Munson’s (2008) study of the anti-abortion movement in the U.S. identified four prognostic frames (politics, education, services, direct action) competing within the same anti-abortion diagnostic frame. The same four prognostic frames can be found competing within Islamist and Extreme Right movements. The distinction between diagnostic and prognostic frames leads to the suggestion that P/CVE programs should contest violent prognostic frames rather than contesting the diagnostic frames that support both violent and nonviolent prognostic frames. The review concludes with a residual puzzle: why have ideology and narrative been popular concepts in terrorism research despite their empirical weaknesses, while diagnostic, prognostic, and motivational action frames have been relatively neglected despite their empirical promise
A Systematic Review of Risk and Protective Factors among Female Violent Extremists
Full text linkBackground: Women are often portrayed in the common sense as nonviolent. If they do engage in terrorist activities, women are assumed to be passive agents, supporting their extremist husband, caring for their children, supporting the organization, or contributing to recruitment. The assumption that women merely follow their husband or dream to become brides of IS fighters is incorrect. This systematic review aims to analyze the existing literature on risk and protective factors in female violent extremists, in order to inform gender-specific counterterrorism policies.
Methods: Inclusion criteria encompassed studies containing data on risk and protective factors of female violent extremist behavior towards persons/property or a willingness to engage in violent extremist behavior. Methodological quality assessment included checklists for qualitative and quantitative studies.
Results: Following the systematic review process, 26 studies were included. Demographic factors, mental health problems, personal and family problems, significance loss, revenge, religious motivations, family involvement, coercion, gender inequality, and group solidarity emerged as contributors to female violent extremism. Conversely, desistance was associated with prosocial environments, personal status, maturation, future perspectives, and negative experiences with terrorism involvement. In addition, certain criminological theories were identified as valuable tools for understanding women’s involvement.
Discussion: With respect to possible biases, it was found that the included studies were mostly based on a small sample size or secondary source data. Moreover, several studies drew on identical data of suicide bombers from an Israeli prison. Understanding the risk and protective factors present in female violent extremists is essential for counterterrorism interventions of this specific group. Addressing personal vulnerabilities should be a first step in establishing effective deradicalization programs and successful reintegration. More empirical research with bigger sample sizes, and specified to the diverse ideologies, is needed to distinguish actual risk and protective factors
Podcast Patriots: How Far-Right Women Podcasters Shaped the Narrative Around the January 6 Insurrection
Full text linkWomen play a crucial role in softening and mainstreaming the far right’s appearance to the general population despite being less visible on the frontlines of radical or extremist events. This phenomenon has become increasingly apparent through audio-based content. With low barriers to entry and ease of creation, far-right women have increasingly relied on podcasts to mainstream their ideologies. However, this method of dissemination remains understudied in comparison to its reach. Accordingly, this research analyzes the ways four women-hosted far-right podcasts in the United States used their platform to speak about the January 6, 2021, Capitol Hill insurrection. Through the use of frame theory, this research demonstrates that the podcasters fail to acknowledge the insurrection as a significant issue, instead opting to deflect the greater blame onto left-leaning social movements, the government, and the mainstream media. Furthermore, this research shows that the podcasters use strong fear-mongering tactics and provide calls to action to remedy a perceived left stronghold. Throughout, the podcasters invoke patriotic sentiments, setting a narrative of allegiance and responsibility that mobilizes their listeners to act against a perceived enemy. This research contributes to the discourse on far-right social media influencers, suggesting the need for a distinct classification for far-right influencers who disseminate content with an explicit, far-right extremist political angle, as it can avoid the oversimplification of gender roles with these movements, as well as the misconception that women within these groups share uniform beliefs and behaviours. Finally, this research proposes the development of targeted prevention and counter-measures using inoculation theory and frame theory, emphasizing the essential integration of gender dynamics within P/CVE efforts
Doing it again. Assessing the features and implications of terrorism recidivism in the context of jihadi attacks in Europe
Full text linkThis article focuses on the issue of terrorism recidivism as it relates specifically to terrorist attacks. Based on the analysis of a dataset comprising information on the jihadi attacks and their perpetrators in Europe between 2014 and 2022, it introduces the following findings: terrorism recidivists are disproportionately more likely to carry out attacks in groups with other “experienced” terrorists; their attacks have a significantly higher impact in terms of casualties; the rate of mental health is remarkably low; and they seem to be able to evade authorities in a much higher percentage of cases than other perpetrators without a terrorism-related criminal record. Overall, these suggest that terrorism recidivist perpetrators operate more “professionally” than the rest of the terrorist perpetrators, making their attacks more lethal and harder to prevent
Key dilemmas in the prevention of radicalization and violent extremism
Full text linkWork on preventing radicalization, and violent extremism (PRVE) is beset with dilemmas, difficult considerations and pitfalls. Based on a synthesis of previous research and original data, this article conceptualizes and discusses three key dilemmas present in PRVE practice and policy: that of civil liberties versus security, that of too soft versus too hard measures, and that of intention versus outcome. The article illustrates how these dilemmas play out and are deliberated upon by PRVE practitioners and policymakers in Nordic countries. The exploration of these dilemmas and the different action pathways they involve can function as “sensitizing tools” to encourage reflexivity around the complexity and unintended consequences of PRVE. The dilemmas also reflect broader issues of societal and scholarly importance, as they make evident several critical ramifications of PRVE
Radicalization in Correctional Systems: A Scoping Review of the Literature Evaluating the Effectiveness of Preventing and Countering Interventions
Full text linkAlthough several prevention and countering radicalization programs in correctional institutions have been carried out in Europe and worldwide, little is known about their effectiveness. Thus, the current scoping review aimed at reporting on the state of the art of the literature assessing and evaluating such actions, identifying knowledge gaps, and examining methods used to assess their successfulness and impact. A total of eight studies that met eligibility criteria were reviewed after performing a search on Scopus, Web of Science, and PsychInfo (Ebsco) databases: Two studies evaluated a reintegration initiative based in the Netherlands; four focused on an Australian disengagement program; and two offered insights on a rehabilitation program carried out in Sri Lanka. Findings were discussed according to their evaluation methods (qualitative, mixed-methods, and quantitative) and instruments. Results highlighted that the evaluation process is still confronted with several methodological difficulties, such as a lack of agreement on how to univocally define and measure success and the identification of uniform indicators of deradicalization and disengagement. Additionally, results revealed that the effectiveness of these interventions is predominantly based on anecdotal evidence rather than on rigorous, empirical proofs. As such, it was not possible to compare these programs and determine which worked best. Suggestions for future research and practical implications for policymakers, prison governors, and practitioners are offered in the concluding section of this work.
Acknowledgements
The present study was made possible by funding from SERENY (“Strengthening approaches for the prevention of youth radicalisation in prison and probation settings”), a project co-funded by the Justice Program of the European Union, GA no. 101007425. The contents of this publication are the sole responsibility of the authors and can in no way be taken to reflect the views of the European Commission
Book Review: Picciolini’s White American Youth
Full text linkThis article reviews Christian Picciolini’s White American Youth (2017), a memoir of a former white supremacist punk musician who co-founded the non-profit organization Life After Hate
The Regional Face of Extremism: A Case Study of the Northern Netherlands
Full text linkWhile the study of extremism has traditionally focused on the national and transnational contexts, systematic studies of extremism at the sub-national level remain scarce. This absence of such research is particularly striking in countries like the Netherlands, where efforts to Prevent and Counter Violent Extremism (P/CVE) are typically delegated to local authorities. Thus, moving beyond the focus on how and why extremism develops, this study analyses when and where it arises. We do so by focusing on the Northern Netherlands (i.e. the provinces of Groningen, Friesland and Drenthe). This region is characterised by specific problems linked to societal discontent surrounding peripherality, the construction of wind farms, reception centres for asylum seekers, and induced earthquakes due to gas extraction. As such, it provides an interesting laboratory environment to study regional and local expressions of extremism. Empirical support is drawn from a wide range of primary and secondary sources, notably semi-structured interviews (N=33) with regional experts, professionals and practitioners, including municipal workers, police officers, and social workers. The findings indicate that the extremist landscape has changed considerably in recent years; specifically, anti-government extremism has become more prevalent than ‘traditional’ forms of extremism (e.g. far-left, far-right and religious extremism). While this is in line with national and transnational trends, the rise of anti-government extremism in the Northern Netherlands appears to be particularly pronounced because of the regional circumstances. This has implications for P/CVE efforts, since the latter remain largely geared towards and focused on countering jihadism. In other words, there is a discrepancy between the nature of extremism on the one hand, and P/CVE approaches on the other.
Acknowledgements
This article is based on research that was commissioned by the Municipality of Groningen and funded by ‘reinforcement money’ (Versterkingsgelden) from the Dutch Ministry of Justice and Security (see Nanninga et al. 2022)
Religious Mobilisation to Terrorism and Implications for Preventing and Countering Violent Extremism: The Case of Abdullah Azzam
Full text linkSocial mobilisation theory (SMT) remains an underutilised lens in examining how religion can be central to radicalisation processes. This paper provides a novel application of SMT to better appreciate the role played by religious ideologues in mobilising individuals to Salafi-jihadist violence through appeals to group and individual benefits. It also considers the implications for preventing and countering violent extremist efforts. The paper conducts a comprehensive thematic analysis of the messaging of the Salafi-jihadist preacher Abdullah Yusuf Azzam, who was highly influential in the mobilisation of mujahideen foreign fighters to Afghanistan following the 1979 Soviet invasion. Through the structured thematic analysis of 38 of his texts in English translation, a set of key religious themes are identified and mapped. The application of SMT to these themes demonstrates that while Azzam clearly employed religious views in his highly successful propaganda, he also drew on stories of the miraculous, a concept difficult to analyse using SMT. An appreciation of the role that religious ideologues can play in influencing violent extremism has implications for preventing and countering violent extremism practitioners. These include the need for a more nuanced understanding of the specific narratives used by ideologues in appealing to group benefits, and a greater appreciation of the irrational aspects of violent extremist narratives