East Asian Science, Technology, and Medicine (EASTM - Universität Tübingen)

Raphals, Lisa

117 Reviews 
G. E. R. Lloyd, The Ambitions of Curiosity: Understanding the World in Ancient 
Greece and China. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press (Ideas in Con-
text), 2002, xvi, 175 pp. 
 
Lisa Raphals 
 
[Lisa Raphals is Professor of Comparative Literature, Director of the Compara-
tive Program in Ancient Civilizations, and cooperating faculty in the Philosophy 
Department at the University of California, Riverside. She received her Ph.D. 
from the University of Chicago in 1989. She is the author of Knowing Words: 
Wisdom and Cunning in the Classical Traditions of China and Greece (Ithaca, 
1992), Sharing the Light: Representations of Women and Virtue in Early China 
(Albany, 1998), and other studies, including “Skeptical Strategies in the 
Zhuangzi and Theaetetus” (Philosophy East & West), “Chinese and Greek Cal-
culations and Categories” (EASTM), and “Thirteen Views of the Self in China” 
(History of Philosophy Quarterly). She is currently completing a study of predic-
tion and divination in early China and Greece.] 
 
 
The Ambitions of Curiosity is one of a series of ground-breaking books in which 
Sir Geoffrey Lloyd has undertaken systematic comparisons of the social context 
and epistemology of the origins of science in early China and Greece. Other 
volumes addressed the nature of authority (Adversaries and Authorities, 1996 
and (with Nathan Sivin) The Way and the Word: Science and Medicine in Early 
China and Greece, 2002), what we can learn form the ancient world on contem-
porary problems (Ancient Worlds, Modern Reflections, 2004; The Delusions of 
Invulnerability, 2005), and the unity or diversity of human perception, cognition 
and other aspects of mind (Cognitive Variations, 2007). This book addresses the 
origins of systematic inquiry. 
It is immediately striking that Lloyd does not frame his problem as the history 
of science. Instead, he investigates the modes of inquiry of which science is a 
part, and arguably the most successful. What courses, he asks, did an interest in 
systematic inquiry take in ancient Greece and China? Who held this ambition, 
who carried it out these inquiries, and with what support or restrictions? Who 
benefited? The book draws on Lloyd’s Isaiah Berlin lectures at Oxford in 2000. 
Each piece is self-contained, but he uses this format adroitly to present separate 
perspectives on “the ambitions of curiosity” in six chapters.  
“Histories, Annals, Myths” examines the role of systematic inquiry in the ori-
gins of history and historiography. In both cultures, the creation of historical 
records was considered important. History arose out of politics and became a 
potentially subversive means to understand the present. But this mode of exper-
tise developed in very different ways. In China it took the “official” route of 
court-sponsored history; in Greece it took an “unofficial” route within a climate 
of independence, debate and competition between peers. Official histories such 
118 EASTM 30 (2009) 
as the Shiji 史 記 (Records of the Grand Historian) provided record-keeping and 
advice to the throne, including accounts of dynastic houses, chronological tables, 
technical treatises and didactic biography. This position offered the advantages of 
support and access to official records, but it also had its dangers, as Sima Qian’s 
(c. 145-c. 86 BC) own history makes clear. It could be argued that this account 
neglects unofficial histories, including family records and other independent 
compilations. Yet the existence of many such documents does not undermine the 
force of the contrast between the existence of Chinese (or for that matter Babylo-
nian) court-sponsored history and record-keeping and the lack of any such insti-
tution in Greece. With the exception of Alexandria under the Ptolemies, Greek 
historians and other technical experts had no official status or support. The 
recognition of expertise was thus subject to competition and persuasion. The 
history of Greek scholarship in any field thus becomes one of ongoing debate, 
competition, and often attack on competing specialists. But this very independ-
ence protected Greek historians and other masters of techne from government 
interference or constraint.  
One of the greatest ambitions of curiosity is the ambition to predict the future. 
“The Modalities of Prediction” focuses on two: interest in celestial phenomena 
and medical diagnosis by the pulses. Lloyd frames this inquiry in two ways: the 
tenacity of the human desire to read the future and the vexed relations between 
the history of divination and the historiography of science. The chapter begins 
with Mesopotamian divination and its antiquity, state sponsorship, practical 
goals, and the early use of conditional predictions in both medicine and the study 
of the heavens. These took the form: if X (a sign or omen) then Y (a result or 
expected outcome). Differences emerged between two styles: statements about 
good or bad fortune that result if a celestial event occurs, and predictions of ce-
lestial events themselves. The latter further stimulated the desire to know the 
future (pp. 27-28). This account provides a comparative context for Chinese 
divination, also closely connected to state patronage. Lloyd surveys the early 
origins of turtle shell and yarrow stalk divination, the transformation of the Yijing 
易 經 (Classic of Changes from a mantic text to a guide to the human condition, 
and the hermeneutic skills used in Yijing interpretation, including the use of pre-
diction as a mode of advice or remonstrance toward rulers. Both Mesopotamia 
and China provide a strong contrast to Greek divination. Here Lloyd emphasizes 
its diversity, mixed attitudes toward diviners (combining respect for divination 
with attacks on particular diviners), the growth of new predictive techniques, 
especially in Hellenistic astronomy, and finally, the central importance of compe-
tition between practitioners or modes of prediction. Lloyd concludes that the 
ambition to predict is widespread and diverse, with multiple important social 
roles, and by no means a monopoly of science. Some predictions were non-causal 
connections, either purely symbolic or empirical conjunctions of events. These 
could not be tested empirically. Nonetheless, prediction did become more refined 
over time as “patterns of regularity” were discovered.   
119 Reviews 
“The Numbers of Things” considers changing notions of mathematics, meas-
urement and quantification. The problem here is that there is no uniformity in 
“what counts as “mathematics” in a given society, what modes of reasoning are 
cultivated, and with what aims” (p. 65). Lloyd argues that the distinctive feature 
of Greek Euclidean mathematics was axiomatic-deductive demonstration. De-
spite its advantage of incontrovertibility (given clear axioms and valid infer-
ences), it is striking that no other ancient society developed this emphasis to the 
Greek degree. Chinese mathematicians, by contrast, interested themselves in a 
different goal: a mathematics unified by both its procedures and guiding cosmo-
logical principles. 
“Applications and Applicabilities” turns to the practical arts of agriculture 
and military and civil engineering. Both civilizations produced technical litera-
tures devoted to practical problems, but they differed in theoretical approach and 
political structures for implementing new ideas. Lloyd contrasts a Greek predilec-
tion for geometrical idealizations and Chinese interests in “the propensities of 
things” (shi 勢). Chinese engineers were less interested in “mastering” their ma-
terials than in exploiting their inherent predispositions (pp. 96-97). As a result, 
Chinese and Greek treatises emphasize different motifs.  
“The Language of Learning” takes up the nature of technical language. Sys-
tematic inquiry strained ordinary language and introduced a new self-reflection 
on the adequacy (or possible adequacy) of language to express new knowledge. 
Two sets of terminology are studied: descriptions of the human body and of 
plants. Much Chinese terminological “fluency” was directed at effective persua-
sion of hierarchical superiors: rulers and their officials. Greek political life, by 
contrast, encouraged the skills of public debate, including logical and mathemati-
cal demonstration of philosophical and scientific arguments.  
A recurring theme in all these studies is the importance and implications of 
state patronage of intellectual institutions. In “Individuals and Institutions” Lloyd 
uses the issue of state patronage of intellectual inquiry to reflect on the inherent 
tensions between state support and freedom of inquiry. Chinese rulers (like Mes-
opotamian kings) devoted substantial patronage to history, astronomy and other 
areas of inquiry. Their support provided employment, security, continuous writ-
ten records and other advantages, but also led to restrictions. The Greek “market-
place of ideas” was independent, decentralized and largely unsupported. Lloyd 
concludes that society and politics profoundly affected modes of systematic in-
quiry into nature, but did not determine them in any simple way. He concludes 
with three recurring patterns. The first is the inherently destabilizing potential of 
inquiry itself (p. 143). The second, which he terms “the momentum effect”, is the 
tendency of a successful mode of inquiry to develop its own momentum, includ-
ing elaboration and new problems; an example is the casting of horoscopes. The 
“extrapolation trap” is the application of a method that is successful in one con-
text to others where it may not fare so well. An example is Chinese Five Phases 
(wuxing 五 行) theory, which over-extended numeric relations to other domains 
where they did not apply.  
120 EASTM 30 (2009) 
Many of the arguments, comparisons and caveats of this book will be familiar 
to readers of Lloyd’s other comparative studies. What distinguishes this volume 
is its fascinating focus on the most basic levels of human intellectual ambition, 
and the diverse ways in which they developed in the ancient world. As in his 
other comparative studies, Lloyd is finely attuned to the roles of social and politi-
cal conditions and institutions, and the need to avoid generalizations about “civi-
lizations” or other imagined communities. He persuasively shows that no society 
has a monopoly on innovation, and that in the ancient world there was no one 
cultural, institutional or ideological formula for success in understanding the 
world. 


G. E. R. Lloyd, The Ambitions of Curiosity: Understanding the World in Ancient Greece and China

The Body Economic: Japan's Cholera Epidemic of 1858 in Popular Discours

Gramlich-Oka, Bettina

The Body Economic: Japan's Cholera Epidemic of 1858 in Popular Discourse 

East Asian 
Science, Technology, 
and Medicine 
 
Number 30 
2009 
 
A journal dedicated to the study of traditional and modern  
East Asian science, technology, and medicine. 
 
 
 
 
Editor:  
Hans Ulrich Vogel 
 
Asien-Orient-Institut 
Abteilung für Sinologie und Koreanistik 
Eberhard Karls Universität Tübingen 
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E-Mail: eastm@uni-tuebingen.de 
 
 
 
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Klaus J. Antoni, Abteilung für Japanologie, Tübingen 
Song Moon-Ey, Abteilung für Sinologie und Koreanistik, Tübingen 
Viktoria Eschbach-Szabo, Abteilung für Japanologie, Tübingen 
Robert Horres, Abteilung für Japanologie, Tübingen 
Achim Mittag, Abteilung für Sinologie und Koreanistik, Tübingen 
EDITORIAL COMMITTEE 
Bridie Andrews-Minehan, Department of History, Bentley College 
Francesca Bray, Department of Social Anthropology, University of Edinburgh 
Christopher Cullen, Needham Research Institute and Darwin College,  
Cambridge 
Benjamin A. Elman, East Asian Studies and History, Princeton University 
Charlotte Furth, Department of History, University of Southern California,  
Los Angeles 
Hashimoto Keizō, Faculty of Sociology, Kansai University, Osaka 
Huang Yi-Long, Institute of History, National Tsing Hua University, Hsinchu 
Jeon Sang-woon, Cultural Properties Committee Korea, Seoul 
Catherine Jami, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Paris 
Yung Sik Kim, College of Humanities, Seoul National University 
Dieter Kuhn, Institut für Kulturwissenschaften Ost- und Südasiens - Sinologie, 
 Universität Würzburg 
Angela Ki Che Leung, Sun Yat-Sen Institute for Social Sciences and Philosophy,  
Academia Sinica, Taipei 
Liu Bing, Institute of Science, Technology and Society, Tsinghua University, 
Beijing 
Liu Dun, Institute for the History of Natural Science, Academia Sinica, Beijing 
Morris Low, School of Languages and Comparative Cultural Studies, University 
of Queensland, Brisbane  
Georges Métailié, Centre Alexandre Koyré, CNRS-EHESS-MNHN, Paris 
Shi Yunli, Department of the History of Science and Scientific Archaeology, 
University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei 
Nathan Sivin, Department of the History and Sociology of Science, University of 
Pennsylvania, Philadelphia 
C. Michele Thompson, Department of History, Southern Connecticut State 
University, New Haven 
Tsukahara Togo, History and Philosophy of Science, Technology and Medicine, 
Kobe University 
Paul U. Unschuld, Horst-Götz-Stiftungsinstitut für Theorie, Geschichte und Ethik 
Chinesischer Lebenswissenschaften, Charité, Berlin 
Donald B. Wagner, Department of Asian Studies, University of Copenhagen 
Yoshida Tadashi, Center for Northeast Asian Studies, Tohoku University, Sendai 
 
 
 
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Editorial

Sexually Transmitted Diseases and Demographic Change in Early Modern Japa

Johnston, William D.

Sexually Transmitted Diseases and Demographic Change in Early Modern Japan

Messner, Angelika C.

103 Reviews 
REVIEWS 
 
 
Kim Taylor, Chinese Medicine in Early Communist China, 1945-63: A Medicine 
of Revolution. London: Routledge Curzon, 2005, xii, 236 pp.  
 
Angelika C. Messner 
 
[Angelika C. Messner is lecturer at the Seminar für Orientalistik, Kiel Univer-
sity. She has published a book on madness in late imperial Chinese medical 
discourses (Medizinische Diskurse zu Irresein in China (1600-1930), Stuttgart, 
2000) and is co-editor of a book on sacred places in China (Heilige Orte in 
Asien und Afrika Räume göttlicher Macht und menschlicher Verehrung, Ham-
burg, 2006). Her second book (Habilitation) is on emotion-knowledge in late 
imperial China. She is currently working on different aspects of the cultural 
history of science by especially focussing on medical and related knowledge 
fields.] 
 
 
Traditional medicine in early twentieth-century China was criticised by most 
reformist intellectuals, as well as intermittently attacked by the Chinese govern-
ment. Their aim was to replace it with Western, scientific medicine, but it sur-
vived, largely because, it is said, Chairman Mao, promoted it as a valuable treas-
ure trove of Chinese culture and civilization.  
Newer scholarship, not content with simply recapitulating this narrative, has 
tried to look as closely as possible at the relevant historical documents in order to 
trace this process through the early decades of the twentieth century. One of the 
first steps in this direction was taken by Sean Hsiang-lin Lei. He studied these 
processes in detail, and describes the moment “Chinese medicine encountered the 
State” as an epistemological and political change.1 Taylor’s contribution can be 
seen as a successor to Lei’s, since she looks―in an equally detailed way―at how 
Chinese medicine came to be developed into a revolutionary enterprise. Her 
focus is on eighteen years “only”, between 1945 and 1963. Previous western-
language research on the ‘modern’ history of Chinese Medicine, including the 
monographs of Croizier, Unschuld, and Sivin,2 has been much broader in its 
                                                 
1
 See Sean Hsiang-Lin Lei, “When Chinese Medicine Encountered the State, 1919-
1949,” Ph.D. diss., University of Chicago, 1999.  
2
 See Ralph C. Croizier, Traditional Medicine in Moderne China, Cambridge, MA: 
Harvard University Press, 1968; Paul U. Unschuld, Medizin in China: Eine 
Ideengeschichte, München: Beck, 1968; Nathan Sivin, Traditional Medicine in Contem-
porary China: A Partial Translation of Revised Outline of Chinese Medicine (1972) with 
104 EASTM 30 (2008) 
scope, and included late nineteenth- and early twentieth-century processes and 
events.  
Recent historiographic research into modern Chinese medicine relies much 
more on close readings of material from a shorter time-span.3 Recent work by 
scholars in Mainland China, for instance Meng Qingyun 孟 慶 云, Wang Zhipu 
王 致 譜 and Cai Jingfeng 蔡 景 峰,4 mainly start at 1956, when the first acad-
emies of TCM were founded. Moreover, such research has been restricted to 
primary sources deriving from CCP (Chinese Communist Party) documentation. 
Research into modern Chinese medicine has changed since the 1990s, when 
scholars started to adopt the perspectives of medical anthropologists and ethno-
graphic methods, and to draw more on the transmission of knowledge as a key for 
understanding practices of modern medicine and less on the essentials of Chinese 
medical history.5  
It is well known by now that culture and history shape knowledge processing 
as much as distributive and professionalisation processes. Cultural historians 
generally start their investigations into the epistemologies of a given scientific 
field by studying the language used at the time under study, e.g. they investigate 
textbooks, scientific and/or popular journals, official announcements, etc. To 
analyse the generic epistemologies of science, technology and medicine means 
furthermore to differentiate between cultural and historical particularities, while 
simultaneously characterizing their implications for “knowledge in its own right”. 
Yet, the ways in which medical knowledge and cultures are related, and the 
boundaries between cultural dimensions and factual knowledge, are still per-
ceived within dichotomic binaries: “nature/culture” and “text/context”. They still 
                                                                                                              
an Introductory Study on Change in Present-day and Early Medicine, Ann Arbor: Center 
for Chinese Studies, The University of Michigan, 1987. 
3
 See for instance Andrews J. Bridie, “The Making of Modern Chinese Medicine, 
1895-1937,” Ph.D. diss., University of Cambridge, 1994.  
4
 See Meng Qingyun 孟 慶 云, Zhongguo Zhongyiyao fazhan wushinian 中 囯 中 医
葯 發 展 五 十 年 (Fifty Years of the Development of China’s Traditional Chinese Medi-
cine and Pharmacology (1949-1999)), Zhengzhou: Henan yike daxue chubanshe, 1999; 
Wang Zhipu 王 致 譜 and Cai Jingfeng 蔡 景 峰, Zhongguo zhongyiyao 50 nian (1949-
99) 中 囯 中医 葯 50 年 (1949-99) (Fifty Years of China’s Traditional Chinese Medicine 
and Pharmacology, 1949-1999), Fuzhou: Fujian kexue jishu chubanshe, 1999. For an 
overview of research on the history of medicine in China from 1998-2003, see Zhu Jian-
ping 朱 建 平 (2003), Zhongyixue shi yanjiu 中 醫 學 史 研 究 (Historical Research on 
Chinese Medicine), Beijing: Zhongyi guji chubanshe, 2003. 
5
 See Judith Farquhar, Knowing Practice. The Clinical Encounter in Chinese Medi-
cine, Boulder: Westview Press, 1994; Elisabeth Hsu, The Transmission of Chinese Medi-
cine, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press (Cambridge studies in medical anthropol-
ogy; 7), 1999; Volker Scheid, Chinese Medicine in Contemporary China: Plurality and 
Synthesis, Durham, London: Duke University Press, 2002.  
105 Reviews 
serve as unspoken heuristic fundaments for historical research in science and 
technology, though these binaries are questionable categories, and are neither 
universalistic principals nor organisational schemes of knowledge across time 
and place.  
Kim Taylor’s book makes use of the potential of divergent generic episte-
mologies of medicine by offering a piece of scholarship that exemplifies the 
possibility of negotiating the binaries “nature/culture” and “text/context” and 
finding ways to overcome them. She does not write about medicine itself, but 
instead explores discourses of high political impact, such as political decisions 
and their implementations at the institutional level, that until recently had been 
unknown because of the restricted nature of CCP documents. Her investigation of 
documents that were not made public, but “were shuffled between local health 
departments and the Ministry of Health […] and the Central Committee” (p. 10) 
offers insights into the ways this rhetoric became of immense practical signifi-
cance.  
The first chapter commences with the documentation of the Civil War years, 
1945-1949, when the CCP came into contact with Chinese medicine. This contact 
was promoted by doctors of Western medicine (pp. 15-29), and was shaped in the 
following years by the slogan “The Co-operation of Chinese and Western Medi-
cines” (zhongxiyi hezuo 中 西 醫 合 作), coined by Mao Zedong 毛 澤 東 (1893-
1976) at Yan’an in 1944. 
Starting from the key text “On New Democracy” (xin minzhu zhuyi 新 民 主 
主 義), published in 1940, wherein Mao defined the new democratic culture by 
“science” (kexue 科 學), this first chapter explores the various and changing 
applications of “science”, “new” and “unity” (tuanjie 團 結) as rhetoric funda-
mentals for building a new China. “Science” here referred to the Marxist ideal of 
science as the criteria for true knowledge.  
Yet, Chinese medicine in the 1940s was still seen in opposition to the “new 
medicine” (xin yi 新 醫), i.e. Western medicine, and as such as a hindering factor 
for the development of the “new democratic culture” (xin minzhu wenhua 新 民 
主 文 化), whose trademark had to be “scientific”. Yet, on 30 October 1944, 
Mao proposed the inclusion of traditional and folk aspects of knowledge in those 
regions that the Communist Party controlled. Unification was a key word among 
Communist Party leaders, and it become a key word also in the process of up-
grading (old) medical practices, such as acupuncture, and their dissemination 
through rural areas. Unity with the peasants meant learning from their medical 
practices, and, on the other hand, teaching them hygienic standards. Unification 
also referred to a united front between Chinese and Western medicine, a crucial 
feature for the development of the new scientific medicine.  
Zhu Lian 朱 璉 (1909-1978), a doctor trained in Western medicine, joined the 
Chinese Communist Party in 1935, served as deputy leader of the General Health 
Department of the 129th Division of the Eighth Route Army, and as deputy direc-
tor of Yan’an China Medical University. She is the author of The New Acupunc-
106 EASTM 30 (2008) 
ture (Xin zhenjiu xue 新 針 灸 學), which was completed in 1949, by which time 
the Communists were winning the Civil War.  
Taylor analyses the specific amalgam of military, Western and Chinese (tradi-
tional) fragments of (medical) knowledge apparent in this book. She offers de-
tailed insights into the ways the human body was described in terms of military 
metaphors and incorporated Soviet innovations in medical theory, such as neuro-
pathology and cell pathology.  
The second chapter covers the years from 1949 to 1953. Roughly during this 
time (1950-1958), the slogans “The Unification of Chinese and Western Medi-
cines” (zhongxiyi tuanjie 中 西 醫 團 結) and “Chinese Medicine studies West-
ern Medicine” (zhongyi xuexi xiyi 中 醫 學 習 西 醫) came into operation. Tay-
lor challenges earlier views that emphasised a period of degradation of Chinese 
medicine. Instead, as she shows, Chinese medicine between these years pro-
gressed from a side-line concern of the Ministry of Health to a matter of national 
consideration—a matter that began with the establishment of the Beijing Chinese 
Medical Institute on May 30, 1950, and which provided practitioners of Chinese 
medicine national representation. The Ministry of Health created standards for all 
Chinese medical clinics and hospitals in order to professionalize the practice of 
Chinese medicine. Patient records and drug-labelling were all to be carried out in 
the Western style. 
After the near abolition of the discipline of acupuncture from the curriculum 
at the Imperial Medical College in 1822, the resurrection of it—in the early 
1950s—became a major concern. By re-establishing the China Acupuncture 
Research Centre in Wuxi, Jiangxi Province, and a special publishing house in 
Suzhou in 1951, the “new acupuncture” began to come to life. Zhu Lian’s “new 
acupuncture” was based on a “newly designed” body, one consisting of sections, 
divisions, lines and stimulation points. The wartime metaphors used by Zhu are 
flanked by other protagonists’ efforts to reduce the body to measurable terms. 
Furthermore, the three major textbooks produced in the early 1950s by three 
physicians living in three different geographical regions (Beijing in the north, 
Sichuan in the southeast and Shanghai in the south), and which Taylor carefully 
compares, all follow Zhu’s template from pre-liberation times.  
The third chapter describes the eventual institutionalization of TCM in the 
years 1953-1956. It shows that the policy of institutionalization—at a tangent to 
Mao’s revolutionary goal of promoting Chinese medicine in the People’s Repub-
lic of China—was not designed just to preserve Chinese medicine in its own right. 
Chinese medicine had to reach a scientific level of development sophisticated 
enough for fusion with Western medicine. Taylor suggests that the program for 
‘doctors of Western medicine to study Chinese medicine’, and the establishment 
of the first government institution of TCM in China, the Research Academy of 
TCM (Zhongyi yanjiuyuan 中 醫 研 究 院), was specifically set up for this pur-
pose. She further suggests that it was not so much Mao’s own interest in Chinese 
medicine as the engagement of others, especially in the south, and the special role 
107 Reviews 
of Zhou Enlai that finally led to the institutionalization of Chinese medicine as a 
valid medical system in four TCM academies (Zhongyi xueyuan 中 醫 學 院). 
The fourth and final chapter deals with the process of standardization of Chi-
nese medicine during the years from 1957 to 1963. Mao’s statement that Chinese 
medicine was a ‘great treasure-house’ in late 1958 was meant to encourage the 
project of ‘doctors of Western medicine studying Chinese medicine’. Further-
more, Chinese medicine was used as a powerful rhetorical tool against the bour-
geois thought of Western medical doctors, especially during the Anti-rightist 
Campaign and Great Leap Forward. During these years the first steps were taken 
to produce a general curriculum, a standardized set of textbooks and a compre-
hensive theory of Chinese medicine. By 1960, the previous goal of unification 
was replaced by the slogan “the integration of Chinese and Western medicines” 
(zhongxiyi jiehe 中 西 醫 結 合). By 1963, a second edition of national textbooks 
had been published and the institutional basis firmly established. This is the 
shape of the Chinese medicine training system that is largely in operation in 
China today. 
This book can be read as a sourcebook for political debates, slogans and gov-
ernment decisions on the issue of Western and Chinese scientific medicine. These 
debates and slogans became of practical significance for the making of the TCM 
in 1963. What Taylor offers is a dense descriptive investigation illuminating the 
dimensions of political rhetoric within the processes of the development and 
canonization of medical knowledge in the early years of the People’s Republic of 
China.  
 


Kim Taylor, Chinese Medicine in Early Communist China, 1945-63: A Medicine of Revolution

Nakayama, Shigeru

ncommensurability Between Western Geometrical and Chinese Numericoalgebraic Astronomy - Takebe Katahiro's Interpretation of Planetary Limit Degrees

Vogel, Hans Ulrich

7 
Note from the Editor 
 
This issue of EASTM contains the second part of the special publication dedicat-
ed to the history of medicine in early modern Japan. It also includes a research 
note by Nakayama Shigeru on the incommensurability between Western geomet-
rical and Chinese numerico-algebraic astronomy, and, as befits this journal, a 
number of book reviews. We are further pleased to announce to our readers the 
contents of the next two editions of EASTM. Although the exact distribution and 
sequence it not yet decided, nos. 31 and 32 will publish a collection of plenary 
lectures presented at the “12th International Conference on the History of Sci-
ence in East Asia” at John Hopkins University, Baltimore, July 14-18, 2008, as 
well as three individual papers submitted to our journal. The plenary lectures 
comprise those by Paul U. Unschuld, President of our society, on “When Health 
was Freed from Fate: Some Thoughts on the Liberating Potential of Early Chi-
nese Medicine,” and Ellis Tinios on “The Human Body in Japanese Illustrated 
Books of the Edo Period, 1615-1868,” as well as Volker Scheid‟s “From Hierar-
chies to Process: Integrating Chinese Medicine into Modern Health Care Sys-
tems,“ James R. Bartholomew‟s “How to Join the Scientific Mainstream: East 
Asian Scientists and Nobel Prizes,” and Tian Miao‟s contribution on “Early 
Stages of Research on the History of Mathematics in China.” The individual 
articles to be published over the next two issues will include “A Philosophy of 
Machines and Mechanics in Seventeenth-Century China: Wang Zheng‟s Charac-
terization and Justification of the Study of Machines and Mechanics in the Qiqi 
tushuo” by Kim Yung Sik, “The Rong Cheng shi version of the „Nine Provinces‟: 
Some Parallels with Transmitted Texts” by Vera Dorofeeva-Lichtmann, and “A 
Korean Reading of Newtonian Mechanics in the Nineteenth Century” by Jun 
Yong Hoon. 
As a result of some delays in the publication of the journal recently, please 
allow me to make use of this opportunity to elucidate the present situation and 
schedule for the next two years, as summarized in the table below. During the bi-
annual scheme (2003-2008) it was not possible to produce a second issue for the 
years 2004 and 2006. In order to remedy this, during the period of the annual 
scheme (2009-2011), we will publish two numbers for the years 2010 and 2011 
rather than just one. Thus, by the end of 2011 the journal once again will be on 
track with regard to its overall commitment towards subscribers. 
I end this note with a general statement about the journal‟s publication policy, 
as becomes evident from the table below: While welcoming and encouraging the 
submission of individual papers, EASTM will continue to solicit the publication 
of special issues. By keeping a balance between these two formats we intend to 
make best use of both types of approaches, that is, individual research mono-
8 
 
graphs on a subject, as well collaborative efforts tackling a problem complex, 
both of which are indispensable for promoting and enriching the fields covered 
by the humanities 
 
 
Hans Ulrich Vogel 
Eberhard Karls University of Tübingen  
Institute of Asian and Oriental Studies 
Department of Chinese and Korean Studies  
 
 
 
 
 
 
Publication Schedule of EASTM, Past and Future 
 
Publication  
scheme 
Numbers 
due 
Numbers  
issued 
Journal  
contents 
 
Bi-annual  2003 (1) 20 Individual Contributions 
 2003 (2) 21 Vietnamese Military Technology 
2004 (1) 22 Individual Contributions 
2004 (2) — — 
2005 (1) 23 Individual Contributions 
2005 (2) 24 In Honor of Prof. Ho Peng Yoke (I) 
2006 (1) 25 In Honor of Prof. Ho Peng Yoke (II) 
2006 (2) — — 
2007 (1) 26 Jesuits, Science and Philology 
2007 (2) 27 Western Learning in Late Imp. China 
2008 (1) 28 Individual Contributions 
2008 (2) 29 Japanese Medicine History (I) 
Annual  2009  30 Japanese Medicine History (II) 
 2010  31 Plenary Lectures 
32 Individual Contributions 
2011 33 Special Issue 
34 Individual Contributions 
 
 
 
 
 
 


Note from the Editor

Tsukahara, Togo

121 Reviews 
Fan Fa-ti, British Naturalists in Qing China: Science, Empire, and Cultural 
Encounter. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2004, xi, 238 pp. 
 
Tsukahara Togo 
 
[Tsukahara Togo is Professor of History of Science and STS, Graduate School of 
Kobe University. He received his Ph.D. from Leiden University in 1993, with his 
thesis on the influence of Dutch sciences in Edo Japan. Then he worked at the 
Needham Research Institute as an Anglo-Daiwa Post-Doctoral Junior Research 
Fellow. His main fields of interest are cultural exchange and techno-science, 
chemistry and meteorology, and colonial sciences.] 
 
 
In this work, Fan Fa-ti explores how British naturalists and their Chinese associ-
ates represented the Chinese natural world during the late Qing empire. With 
ample examples and original analysis, this is undoubtedly a valuable work that 
combines the history of science and intercultural encounters, successfully de-
scribing how this field of knowledge production was embedded within the con-
text of cultural exchange between the British and Chinese.  
The merits of this book can be considered under the following two points. 
First, Fan clarifies the history of this branch of Western scientific research in 
China. This history has been largely neglected, and Fan has unearthed abundant 
evidence so far little known to historians of science. On both the British and 
Chinese sides, Fan explores interesting archival and personal documents, and 
sheds new light on historical details.  His laborious scrutiny of historical docu-
ments has provided us with substantial empirical rewards. In sum, this work is 
established on the firm foundation of historical research.  
Second, Fan successfully sites the cultural meaning of the history of natural 
history in the context of cultural exchanges and power relations between the 
rising/expanding and falling/contracting cycles of empire. This line of enquiry is 
generated from the negotiation of cultural exchanges between the British and the 
Chinese. Among Western scholars, non-Western natural history has often been 
characterized simply as a result of exploration or Western discovery of Eastern 
resources, but this is not at all true. Fan makes clear that the emergence of this 
branch of knowledge depended on multidimensional actors and socio-economic 
forces, as well as on the political interactions between the empires. 
In order to demonstrate the second point, Fan‟s methodology draws upon re-
cent trends in cultural studies. Following current analyses of cultural encounters 
and history of science, he examines “the research of British naturalists in China 
in relation to the history of natural history, of scientific imperialism, and of Sino-
Western relations by tracing the scientific naturalists‟ activities from a long his-
torical perspective and in a broad cultural context” (p. 2). He does not build his 
framework from the point of view of the “modern”, nor does he assume that the 
popularity of natural history and the expansion of the British Empire are suffi-
122 EASTM 30 (2009) 
cient on their own to understand the various contacts between British naturalists 
and the Chinese. Instead, in order to analyse such encounters, he employs the 
concepts of “contact zone” and “borderlands”, and emphasizes the “hybrid” and 
“performative” aspects of these cultural encounters. Hence, he neither presup-
poses a rigid demarcation of cultural boundaries nor conventional binary catego-
ries such as Chinese/Western, but defines his task as a historian as being to “ex-
plain why and how the boundaries were formed”, and how they are thought to 
“mark out a space for human actors as agents of historical change.” He thus is 
able to “trace the translation, transmission, and generation of knowledge and 
other cultural productions that did not square with national, cultural, or other 
conventional categories” (p. 4). 
The book consists of two sections, “The Port”, and “The Land”. The division 
is both geographical and chronological, with the first part mainly covering from 
between the middle of the eighteenth century and the Opium Wars, and the se-
cond part tracing until the first decade of the twentieth century. The first section 
contains two chapters, “Natural History in a Chinese Entrepôt” and  “Art, Com-
merce, and Natural History”. The first discusses early exchanges between the 
Europeans and Chinese in Canton, the period commonly referred to by later 
Western residents in China as “the times of Old Canton”. These consisted mostly 
of commercial, and some cultural, exchanges on objects of natural history, and a 
number of episodes and stories set in the “contact zone” of Old Canton are vivid-
ly described. Chapter two presents natural history illustrations that, according to 
Fan, were generated as export paintings through the collaboration of British natu-
ralists and Chinese artisans. Chinese export painting brings together the Western 
gaze on nature partly captured by the Chinese artisan‟s technique, thus becoming 
“the hybridization of visual cultures”. Picturing nature is a matter of aesthetic 
negotiation, and, for example, such naturalists as John Reeves had to “harness the 
Chinese Artists‟ creative imagination in ways that were not compatible with the 
established rules of natural history illustration” (p. 51). Reeves therefore had to 
keep the pictures from transgressing the boundaries of “scientific realism”. The 
author frames natural history illustration as a medium of “scientific communica-
tion”. He describes how its “realistic” style invoked the authority of objective 
observation, and the ways in which way the illustrations relied on certain shared 
systems of encoding and decoding. Natural history illustrations themselves are 
analyzed as a site of cultural encounter, and Fan examines the relationship be-
tween visual authority and production of knowledge.  
The second part of the book contains three chapters, covering the period of 
the opening of the treaty ports in the wake of the Opium Wars until the collapse 
of the Qing dynasty in 1911. Fan identifies three dimensions of this period: (1) 
the formation of an empire of scientific information, (2) the cooperation and 
inter-development of Sinology and natural history and (3) increasing activities of 
exploration and fieldwork. In general, he argues, there are increasing activities 
due to greater access, alerting readers to the consequences of this wider access. 
Thus, chapter three outlines the prosopography of British naturalists and institu-
123 Reviews 
tions that supported their activities. Chapter four then examines the translation of 
natural objects and the identification of traditional materia medica and natural 
history, as well as its parallel to the increase of knowledge in Sinology. Fan in-
vestigates natural history and its relation to so-called orientalist scholarship in the 
discourse of Sinology. Wider access and collaboration with orientalist discourse 
opened up new space, both geographically and ideologically. As the interior of 
China became accessible to them, the British travelled deep into it. Such travel 
included British hunting culture, hence imperial ideology. Fan demonstrates that, 
“At any rate, British Imperialism in China was hardly limited to commercial 
aggression backed up by gunboat diplomacy. It also permeated cultural practices 
in everyday life. Technological superiority, particular codes of honour, cultural 
confidence and arrogance, a desire to export universal values, and a belief in 
„handling the natives firmly‟ all entered into the thinking of British travellers and 
naturalists in the field and shaped their conduct toward the affairs concerning the 
Chinese” (p. 143). The British had been exploring China since the 1840s, and by 
the end of the nineteenth century, they had reached the frontiers of the Qing em-
pire. Such exploration and travel is, according to Fan, considered to be a struggle 
“to reconfigure the territories, perhaps more symbolic than geopolitical; it assert-
ed, however indirectly, certain power relations. It strove to create an imperial 
space”(p. 152). 
This is a very well structured and informative work with interesting historical 
evidence, and his arguments are substantial and firmly grounded. From a differ-
ent viewpoint, however, I would like to pose a few questions on the further valid-
ity of Fan‟s work. This is a splendid case study on the encounter of the British 
naturalists and China, but to what extent are his arguments valid more widely? 
Fan parallels the development of the growth of the body of natural history 
knowledge and the discourse of Sinology, but is this comparable to other sites of 
orientalist discourse, for instance that of French naturalists in Africa, or the natu-
ral historians working within the Dutch trading post in Nagasaki, Japan? Europe-
an naturalists in Japan should be the optimal comparative case for Fan‟s Old 
Canton; for instance, the Swedish naturalist C. Thunberg exchanged his “mod-
ern” Linnean discourse with Japanese traditional practitioners of material medi-
ca, and the German scientist Ph. F. von Siebold gave detailed instruction to tradi-
tional Japanese painter Keiga Kawahara, and had him produce a series of marvel-
lous natural history paintings, many of which were used for the influential works 
Flora Japonica and Fauna Japonica. In addition, with regard to his analysis of 
imperialism and space, and the production of knowledge embedded in the context 
of struggling powers and multidimensional actors, is it also valid for the British 
(or other European Imperial) encounters and interactions with other old empires, 
such as the Ottoman Empire and/or the Mugal Empire? One need not expect to 
Fan to provide answers in this book, though his work inevitably stimulates us to 
ask such wider historical questions.  
Even in such a well-written and exhaustive work, I must note that there are 
just a few points of regret. Although there are extensive notes containing biblio-
124 EASTM 30 (2009) 
graphical references, it lacks a bibliography. For such an excellent work analyz-
ing cultural encounters and exchange, there also seems to be some cultural bias. 
For example, even though there is an appendix of biographical notes on British 
naturalists, as well as a list of abbreviations of British institutions and major 
journals, no list of Chinese associates or glossary is attached. Indeed the book is 
entirely without Chinese characters. Probably this is because this book is as-
sumed to be read principally by English readers, but assuming such a dominance 
of the English language decreases the value of this work. For instance, when 
considering such a key concept as “the Hong merchant” in Canton, and “Pu-
ankequa”, the premier Hong merchant in the late eighteenth century who traded 
with Westerners, we would like to know what “Hong” and which “Puan”, “ke” 
and “qua”. Since the Chinese are the counterparts Fan eagerly describes and 
analyzes, it seems inappropriate to disregard their original names and details. The 
problem is that there is a wide variety of pronunciation in Chinese, and the use of 
romanised forms alone is quite often not specific enough. The use of common 
Chinese characters and the specification of place and peoples‟ names facilitates 
identification, not only for Chinese readers, but other East Asian readers of Japa-
nese and Korean. This is, of course, not the fault of the author, but a matter of the 
publisher‟s policy, and is one that really should be reconsidered. After all, works 
of this sort aim at enhancing mutual cultural understanding, and it is hoped that 
any book discussing British (and European) cultural imperialism would not be-
come in itself imperialistic. This work is, however, essential reading for histori-
ans of the sciences and cultural exchange. 
 
 


Fan Fa-ti, British Naturalists in Qing China: Science, Empire, and Cultural Encounter

Contents 
 
 
Special Issue 
Society and Illness in Early Modern Japan (continued) 
 
Note from the Editor 7 
 
Warding off Calamity in Japan: A Comparison of the 1855 Catfish 
Prints and the 1862 Measles Prints  
—GREGORY SMITS 9 
 
The Body Economic: Japan’s Cholera Epidemic of 1858 in Popular 
Discourse  
—BETTINA GRAMLICH-OKA 32 
 
Sexually Transmitted Diseases and Demographic Change in Early 
Modern Japan 
—WILLIAM D. JOHNSTON 74 
 
 
Research Note 
 
Incommensurability Between Western Geometrical and Chinese 
Numericoalgebraic Astronomy—Takebe Katahiro’s Interpre-
tation of Planetary Limit Degrees 
—NAKAYAMA SHIGERU  93 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Reviews 
 
Kim Taylor, Chinese Medicine in Early Communist China,  
1945-63: A Medicine of Revolution 
 —reviewed by Angelika C. Messner 103 
 
Volker Scheid, Chinese Medicine in Contemporary China: 
Plurality and Synthesis 
 —reviewed by Nathan Sivin 108 
 
Deepak Kumar, Science and the Raj: A Study of British India 
 —reviewed by Dhruv Raina 114 
 
G. E. R. Lloyd, The Ambitions of Curiosity: Understanding the 
World in Ancient Greece and China  
 —reviewed by Lisa Raphals 117 
 
Fan Fa-ti, British Naturalists in Qing China: Science, Empire, 
and Cultural Encounter  
 —reviewed by Tsukahara Togo 121 
 
 


East Asian 
Science, Technology, 
and Medicine 
 
Number 29 
2008 
 
A journal dedicated to the study of traditional and modern  
East Asian science, technology, and medicine. 
 
 
 
Editor:  
Hans Ulrich Vogel 
 
Asien-Orient-Institut 
Abteilung für Sinologie und Koreanistik 
Eberhard Karls Universität Tübingen 
Wilhelmstr. 133 
72074 Tübingen / Germany 
FAX: 0049 - 7071 - 295733 
E-Mail: eastm@uni-tuebingen.de 
 
 
 
Managing and Production Editors: 
Vanessa Dahlmann, Abteilung für Sinologie und Koreanistik, Tübingen 
Valerie Keppel, Abteilung für Sinologie und Koreanistik, Tübingen 
 
 
 
English Language Editor:  
John P. C. Moffett, Needham Research Institute, Cambridge (UK) 
 
 
 
Local Advisory Board: 
Klaus J. Antoni, Abteilung für Japanologie, Tübingen 
Song Moon-Ey, Abteilung für Sinologie und Koreanistik, Tübingen 
Viktoria Eschbach-Szabo, Abteilung für Japanologie, Tübingen 
Robert Horres, Abteilung für Japanologie, Tübingen 
Achim Mittag, Abteilung für Sinologie und Koreanistik, Tübingen 
EDITORIAL COMMITTEE 
Bridie Andrews-Minehan, Department of History, Bentley College 
Francesca Bray, Department of Social Anthropology, University of Edinburgh 
Christopher Cullen, Needham Research Institute and Darwin College,  
Cambridge 
Benjamin A. Elman, East Asian Studies and History, Princeton University 
Charlotte Furth, Department of History, University of Southern California,  
Los Angeles 
Hashimoto Keizō, Faculty of Sociology, Kansai University, Osaka 
Huang Yi-Long, Institute of History, National Tsing Hua University, Hsinchu 
Jeon Sang-woon, Cultural Properties Committee Korea, Seoul 
Catherine Jami, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Paris 
Yung Sik Kim, College of Humanities, Seoul National University 
Dieter Kuhn, Institut für Kulturwissenschaften Ost- und Südasiens - Sinologie, 
 Universität Würzburg 
Angela Ki Che Leung, Sun Yat-Sen Institute for Social Sciences and Philosophy,  
Academia Sinica, Taipei 
Liu Bing, Institute of Science, Technology and Society, Tsinghua University, 
Beijing 
Liu Dun, Institute for the History of Natural Science, Academia Sinica, Beijing 
Morris Low, School of Languages and Comparative Cultural Studies, University 
of Queensland, Brisbane  
Georges Métailié, Centre Alexandre Koyré, CNRS-EHESS-MNHN, Paris 
Shi Yunli, Department of the History of Science and Scientific Archaeology, 
University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei 
Nathan Sivin, Department of the History and Sociology of Science, University of 
Pennsylvania, Philadelphia 
C. Michele Thompson, Department of History, Southern Connecticut State 
University, New Haven 
Tsukahara Togo, History and Philosophy of Science, Technology and Medicine, 
Kobe University 
Paul U. Unschuld, Horst-Götz-Stiftungsinstitut für Theorie, Geschichte und Ethik 
Chinesischer Lebenswissenschaften, Charité, Berlin 
Donald B. Wagner, Department of Asian Studies, University of Copenhagen 
Yoshida Tadashi, Center for Northeast Asian Studies, Tohoku University, Sendai 
 
 
 
THE SCOPE OF EASTM 
Copyright  2007. EASTM (formerly Chinese Science) is published by the International 
Society for the History of East Asian Science, Technology, and Medicine (ISHEASTM). 
Numbers 1-10 (1975-92) were published irregularly under the editorship of Nathan Sivin 
(University of Pennsylvania). Numbers 11-15 (1993-98) were issued annually at the 
University of California, Los Angeles, by Benjamin A. Elman. Beginning with Number 
16 (1999), the name of the journal changed to East Asian Science, Technology, and 
Medicine and is published at the University of Tübingen, Germany. From 2003 to 2008 
two issues per annum have been the norm, however, only one issue per annum will be 
published from 2009 onwards. The publication of this periodical is supported by a grant 
from the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG). 
This journal includes studies on the science, technology, and medicine of traditional and 
contemporary East Asia. Any study based on original research using Chinese, Japanese, 
or Korean primary sources or artifacts, that elucidates the relationships and interactions of 
science, technology, and medicine with politics, society, economics, philosophy, culture, 
religion, historiography, as well as their disciplinary traditions, or throws light on the 
work of scientists, technologists, and physicians in East Asia will gladly be considered. 
SUBMISSIONS 
Potential contributors are encouraged to correspond with the editor before submitting 
manuscripts in order to ensure that their work falls within the purview of EASTM, and to 
simplify the preparation of the final copy. All contributions except invited reviews are 
refereed. The editor does not referee. For Chinese romanization, both Pinyin and Wade-
Giles transcriptions are accepted, while for Japanese and Korean, the Hepburn and 
McCune/Reischauer systems are to be used. With regard to style and format, contributors 
should refer to the latest issue of EASTM. Information on the preparation of manuscripts 
and their submission in electronic form will also be provided on request. 
SUBSCRIPTIONS FOR THE PERIOD FROM 2009 TO 2011: 
INDIVIDUAL RATE (automatically confers ISHEASTM membership), three issues (one 
issue per year), postage paid (surface mail) anywhere: normal rate € 60.00 or US$ 85.00; 
special rate for graduate students, post-docs within first five years of their PhD, or retired 
persons: € 9.00 or US$ 13.00.  
INSTITUTIONAL RATE, three issues (one issue per year), postage paid (surface mail) 
anywhere: € 83.00 or US$ 116.00; single issues, postage paid (surface mail) anywhere:    
€ 30.00 or US$ 43.00. 
BACK ISSUES: Members of the Society (which includes all individuals holding a 
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issues. The issues no. 1-11 of Chinese Science are out of print, but can be downloaded at 
http://www.uni-tuebingen.de/sinologie/eastm. An entire set of remaining back issues (i.e. 
nos. 12-15 of Chinese Science and nos. 16-28 of EASTM) is available to subscribers at    
€ 200.00/US$ 300.00.  
Send orders or inquiries to: ISHEASTM/SIHSTMAO, att.: Christopher Cullen, 
Needham Research Institute, 8 Sylvester Road, Cambridge CB3 9AF, UK, Email: 
c.cullen@nri.org.uk, Fax: +44 1223 362703 
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Please note that from Number 11 (1993) Chinese Science/EASTM was published 
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while in the period 2009-2011 only one issue per year will be published. 
BACK ISSUES 
Issues of Chinese Science/EASTM normally remain in print for three or four years. At the moment 
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HOME PAGE 
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Tübingen University: http://www.uni-tuebingen.de/sinologie/eastm  
ISHEASTM 
The publication, since the fifties, of Joseph Needham’s (1900-1995) monumental work, 
Science and Civilisation in China, has been followed by a rapid development of research 
on the history of science, technology, and medicine in China, as well as in civilisations 
upon which Chinese culture exerted an important influence, such as Japan, Korea, and 
Vietnam. Since 1982, International Conferences on the History of Science in China had 
been held at irregular intervals. At the sixth of these conferences, held in Cambridge in 
1990 in honour of Joseph Needham’s ninetieth birthday, participants agreed to found the 
International Society for the History of East Asian Science, Technology, and Medicine 
(ISHEASTM). 
The Society’s purpose is to serve, represent and speak for scholars of the field defined by 
its name. It aims, primarily, to promote contacts and exchanges between those scholars, 
and also to establish and reinforce links with other scholarly communities, at an 
international level. The Society’s activities include: 
• The organisation of a plenary meeting every three years (Kyoto 1993, Seoul 1996, 
Singapore 1999, Shanghai 2002, Munich 2005, Baltimore 2008; Huangshan 2011), and 
from 2011 onwards every four years; 
• The publication of a journal, EASTM; 
• The publication of a semi-annual Bulletin. 
For more information on the society please consult the home page maintained at the 
Needham Research Institute in Cambridge: http://www.nri.org.uk/ISHEASTM.html 
 
 
 
This journal is printed on acid-free paper.   
ISSN #1562-918X 


Not a member yet

G. E. R. Lloyd, The Ambitions of Curiosity: Understanding the World in Ancient Greece and China

The Body Economic: Japan's Cholera Epidemic of 1858 in Popular Discourse

Editorial

Sexually Transmitted Diseases and Demographic Change in Early Modern Japan

Kim Taylor, Chinese Medicine in Early Communist China, 1945-63: A Medicine of Revolution

ncommensurability Between Western Geometrical and Chinese Numericoalgebraic Astronomy - Takebe Katahiro's Interpretation of Planetary Limit Degrees

Note from the Editor

Fan Fa-ti, British Naturalists in Qing China: Science, Empire, and Cultural Encounter

Contents

Editorial

370

608