International Journal of Conflict and Violence (IJCV - Universität Bielefeld)
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Online Extremism: Research Trends in Internet Activism, Radicalization, and Counter-Strategies
Full text linkThis article reviews the academic literature on how and for what purposes violent extremists use the Internet, at both an individual and organizational level. After defining key concepts like extremism, cyber-terrorism and online radicalization, it provides an overview of the virtual extremist landscape, tracking its evolution from static websites and password-protected forums to mainstream social media and encrypted messaging apps. The reasons why violent extremist organizations use online tools are identified and evaluated, touching on propaganda, recruitment, logistics, funding, and hacking. After this, the article turns to the ways violent extremist individuals use the Internet, discussing its role as a facilitator for socialization and learning. The review concludes by considering the emergent literature on how violent extremism is being countered online, touching on both defensive and offensive measures
College Women’s Experience of Verbal Sexual Coercion and Responses to a Sexual Assault Vignette
Full text linkSexual aggression is one of the most humiliating forms of gender-based violence and may profoundly affect victims’ physical, mental, and sexual health. This research analyzed the role of previous experiences of sexual coercion by an intimate partner on women’s behavioral, cognitive, and emotional responses to a video clip showing a sexual assault involving a couple. Spanish college women with (N = 63) and without (N = 77) experience of sexual coercion indicated the point at which they would leave the situation (response latency), the probability of terminating the relationship if they were the woman in the video, attributions of responsibility to victim and perpetrator, and their emotional state. Victims were less likely to say they would terminate the relationship and reported more negative emotions than did nonvictims, but no differences were found on the response latency and attribution measures. Overall, the results suggest that previous sexual coercion may be related to women’s behavioral and emotional responses to situations involving the threat of sexual victimization
Sexual Violence Victimization among Undergraduates at a Chilean University
Full text linkAs part of a campus-wide prevention program, the Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile (PUC) implemented a cross-sequential survey on sexual violence. In this article, we report data from the first wave (2018; N = 2,046) from three cohorts of undergraduates (Year 1, n = 792; Year 2, n = 601; Year 3, n = 653). We found an overall twelve-month prevalence for victimization experiences of 18.7 percent (4.3 percent by force or threat of force; 12.9 percent while unable to resist; 7.1 percent by verbal pressure; multiple responses allowed). Women (22.9 percent) were victimized more frequently than men (9.7 percent). Among women, victimization rates were highest for Year 1 students (25.7 percent), intermediate for Year 2 (22.3%), and lowest for Year 3 (19.8 percent). Only 10.9 percent of reported incidents happened in a university context. In most cases, perpetrators were male (88.9 percent) and known to the victim (72.1 percent); 24.4 percent were partners, 35.5 percent were friends. We present additional data on risk factors and attitudinal correlates. We also discuss our findings in relation to previous research suggesting higher prevalence rates at Chilean universities, considering differences in methodology and implications for future research
Radicalization and Political Violence – Challenges of Conceptualizing and Researching Origins, Processes and Politics of Illiberal Beliefs
Full text linkRecently, radicalism and radicalization have been gaining a great deal of public attention and are considered one of many signs of political crisis. Yet, this belies the ambivalence of these terms. The present article argues for a broader understanding of radicalization in order to explore the entire spectrum of radicalization phenomena: from radicalization without violence to radicalization into violence and radicalization within violence. A broader concept helps to ensure that radicalization is not conflated with situations marked by imminent threats of violence, which too often result in the curtailment of civil liberties and forms of social and political stigmatization. In addition, a broader understanding can open a discursive and regulative space in the area of primary, secondary and tertiary prevention
Beat, Ignore, Force to Conform: Development and Initial Validation of a Multidimensional Scale of Acceptance of Collective Violence
Full text linkLiterature on collective violence usually treats an act of aggression as a unidimensional phenomenon—occurring or not. The social psychological perspective on intergroup relations shows, however, that different aspects of an intergroup situation (social context, differences in status, past relations) lead to different behaviors. This article describes the development and initial validation of the multifaceted concept of intergroup collective violence. In a series of three studies (N = 1,420, N = 1,000, N = 1,019) using mixed methodology, we constructed a scale for measuring acceptance of intergroup collective violence. Results show that it is a multidimensional phenomenon, dependent on 1) the ethnicity of the victims; 2) the perception of threat posed by them; and 3) the ideology. The results can have a substantial impact on the discipline, providing theoretical explanation of the differences in outbursts of violence in similar situations, such as pogroms
A Social-Developmental Model of Radicalization: A Systematic Integration of Existing Theories and Empirical Research
Full text linkRadicalization and violent extremism are pressing problems across the world. After initially addressing problems in defining radicalization and extremism, this article sketches a new social-developmental model based on a systematic integration of theories and empirical findings. We propose a three-step model of radicalization starting with ontogenetic social-developmental processes during the most dynamic period for social development, from early childhood to late adolescence. These processes include the interaction of societal, social, and individual risk and protective factors. In adverse cases this interplay encourages the establishment of proximal radicalization processes between early adolescence and middle adulthood. We assume that four interrelated but distinct social-developmental processes are central conditions for radicalization and extremism: identity problems, prejudice, political or religious ideologies, and antisocial attitudes and behavior. These proximal processes are triggered by actual societal, social, or individual conflicts (such as economic crisis, victimization) and marked by continuous intergroup processes. The more intense the proximal processes, the greater the likelihood of extremist attitudes and behavior. The article closes by discussing implications for early prevention and an outlook for further research
Links between Aggressive Sexual Fantasies and Presumably Non-Consensual Aggressive Sexual Behavior when Controlling for BDSM Identity
Full text linkRecent research provides evidence that aggressive sexual fantasies predict aggressive sexual behavior in the general population. However, sexual fantasies including fantasies about the infliction of pain and humiliation, should be frequent and often consensually acted upon among individuals with sadomasochistic likings. The question arises whether sexual fantasies with aggressive content still predict presumably non-consensual aggressive sexual behavior in individuals with sadomasochistic likings, given that BDSM encounters are generally considered consensual. To investigate this question, we conducted a questionnaire survey of sexual fantasies, assessing the frequency of seventy sexual fantasies involving non-aggressive, masochistic, and aggressive acts. Our sample (N = 182) contained 99 respondents who self-identified as sadist, masochist, or switcher; 44 reported no such identification. For respondents reporting BDSM identification, we replicated a factor structure for sexual fantasies similar to that previously found in the general population, including three factors reflecting fantasies about increasingly severe aggressive sexual acts. Fantasies about injuring a partner and/or using weapons and fantasies about sexual coercion predicted presumably non-consensual sexual behavior independently of other risk factors for aggressive sexual behavior and irrespective of BDSM identification. Hence, severely aggressive sexual fantasies may predispose to presumably non-consensual sexual behavior in both individuals with and without BDSM identification
Connecting Structures: Resistance, Heroic Masculinity and Anti-Feminism as Bridging Narratives within Group Radicalization
Full text linkThis article pursues two objectives. First, it provides a literature review of research on group radicalization and, second, building on previous research about narratives and their influence on radicalization, it introduces a new concept for comparative radicalization studies: bridging narratives. We use this term to address commonalities in the ideological elements found across various radicalized groups. As narratives shape perceptions of the world and guide processes of identification, they assume an important (internal) function in group formation. At the same time, various radical groups (ethnic nationalists, Salafist-jihadists and militant leftists) share core ideological elements, commonalities that can lead to the creation of new coalitions and unexpected alliances (an external function). The common factor among them are constructed conceptions of the adversary – be they modernity, universalism, Jewish people or feminism. Such constructions allow for the fabrication of an enemy as well as specific conceptions of hierarchical social orders. We analyze two examples in this context: anti-feminism (including heroic or toxic masculinity) and the resistance dispositif that promotes vigilante terrorism. This approach allows us to investigate processes of group radicalization while also taking into account their ideological content as well as the formal effects of such content on processes of group-building and the dynamics of radicalization. In the final section, we provide recommendations for action
What Do We Know about Radicalization? Overview of the Structure and Key Findings of the Focus Section
Full text linkWhat Do We Know about Radicalization? A Commentary on Key Issues, Findings and a Framework for Future Research for the Scientific and Applied Community
Full text linkThis IJCV focus section presents seven articles that resulted from a project involving a mix of researchers and practitioners working jointly on different aspects of radicalization. The current commentary provides an overview of these, examining how the findings inform our wider understanding, support previous findings and provide a framework for future research. It also synthesizes the issues raised and explores where this takes the scientific and applied community. Whilst based primarily on literature and lessons learned from Germany, many of the findings and recommendations are applicable to the wider international context. This collection of articles on the subject of radicalization therefore provides the reader with a broad and up-to-date understanding of key concepts, themes and issues, and an in-depth understanding of specific topics, ongoing challenges and knowledge gaps. It also provides a solid basis to inform evidence-based practice and highlights practitioner requirements and gaps in understanding that need to be addressed. The knowledge presented here can therefore inform Preventing/Countering Violent Extremism efforts, which need to be practical, feasible, affordable and evidence-based