Coconut Research Institute Repository

Peiris, W.B.K.

Fernando, M.T.N.

Hitinayake, G.S.B.

Dassanayake, K.B.

Gunathilake, H.A.J.

Subasinghe, S.D.J.N.

Economic feasibility and biological productivity of coconut based agroforestry models in Sri Lanka

Somasiri, L.L.W.

Jayalath, K.V.N.N.

Panditharathne,  D.P.

Fernando, K.R.E.M.

Perceptions and experiences of coconut growers adopting different irrigation systems for  coconuts

Fernando, S.C.

Verdeil, J.L.

Hocher, V.

Weerakoon, L.K.

Hirimburegama, K.

Histological analysis of plant regeneration from plumule explants of Cocos nucifera

Tennakoon, N.A.

Compost for coconut cultivation

Dasanayake, P.N.

Everard, T.

Karunanayake, E.H.

Nandadasa, H.G.

Genetic relatedness of coconut (Cocos nucifera L.)germplasm in Sri Lanka as revealed by simple sequence repeat markers

Bandara, S.D.H.

COCOS (2003) , 1 5 2 3 - 3 0 
Printed in Sri Lanka 
NUTRIENT CONTENT OF SOME LOCALLY AVAILABLE ORGANIC 
MATERIALS AND THEIR POTENTIAL AS ALTERNATIVE 
SOURCES OF NUTRIENTS FOR COCONUT 
N. A. Tennakoon and S. D. Hemamala Bandara 
Coconut Research Institute, Lunuwila, Sri Lanka 
ABSTRACT 
Fourteen organic materials were collected from five coconut growing areas 
in Sri Lanka viz. Chilaw, Gampaha, Negombo, Kurunegala, and Kalutara. 
They were cattle manure, goat manure, broiler and layer poultry manure, pig 
manure, farm yard manure (FYM), biogas residue, sewage sludge, compost, 
gliricidia, pueraria, calopagonium, and acacia. Their total N, P, K, Ca, Mg, 
Na, Fe, Mn, Cu, Zn, B, Cd, NH 4-N, N0 3 -N and organic carbon (OC) contents 
were determined. The plant materials and animal manures contain 
appreciable quantities of plant nutrients. Nutrient content of each organic 
material was found to be variable depending on the origin and location. 
Goat manure and fresh foliage of gliricidia had a higher content of N, than 
the other materials. The N content was higher in broiler than in layer litter. 
Sewage sludge had the lowest N content. Highest P content was in poultry 
manure, while K content was highest in green materials. Magnesium 
content was higher in FYM and biogas residue. The materials tested have 
considerable amounts of macro and micro nutrients and these materials 
could be used as a source of plant nutrients for coconut, to supply the N 
requirement in full and P, K and Mg requirements partially. 
INTRODUCTION 
The coconut growers are showing an interest in utilizing organic manures, 
primarily due to the exorbitant price of imported chemical fertilizers. Organic 
materials, such as animal manures, green manures, crop residues, kitchen 
wastes and sewage sludge are often freely available. Organic wastes serve 
not only as a source of plant nutrients but also in restoring soil fertility and 
soil quality, thereby improving the chemical, physical and biological 
properties of soil (Parr and Colacicco, 1987; Maraikar and Amarasiri 1988; 
Tennakoon et al; 1995). The benefits of organic manures,' for stimulating 
plant growth and increasing crop yield (Tennakoon, 1990) and developing 
resistance to pests and diseases (Flaig, 1984) have also been reported. 
The aim of this study is to determine the macro and micro nutrient contents 
of some locally available organic materials, which could be used as manure 
for coconut, and to assess their nutritional value. 
23 
MATERIALS AND METHODS 
Fourteen different kinds of organic materials were collected from five 
coconut growing areas in Sri Lanka viz. Chilaw, Gampaha, Negombo, 
Kurunegala, and Kalutara. Ten locations were selected for sample collection 
from each of the above-mentioned areas. 
The organic materials collected for this study were (a) animal manures, 
(farm yard manure, goat manure, pig manure, poultry manure of broilers and 
layers), (b) other dead materials (biogas residues, sewage sludge and 
compost, which were made with cattle manure and green manure) and (c) 
green manures (acacia, calopagonium, centrosema, gliricidia and pueraria). 
The nutrient contents of these organic materials were determined using 
standard analytical procedures. The chemical parameters determined were 
total N, P, K, Mg, Ca, Na, Fe, Mn, Cu, Zn, Cd, B using methods described 
by Cresser and Parson, 1979, ammonium N and nitrate N using methods 
described by Marr and Cresser, 1983 and organic carbon using methods 
described by Nelson and Sommers, 1975. 
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 
Nutrient contents of the organic materials tested are given in Tables 1 and 
2. Goat manure and fresh foliage of gliricidia contained higher content of N 
than the other materials. Nitrogen content was higher in broiler litter than in 
layer litter. Sewage sludge had the lowest N content. The highest P content 
was found in poultry manure. The K content was high in green materials as 
well as in poultry and goat manures, while Mg content was high in FYM and 
biogas residues (Table 1). Similar trends of macro nutrient status of organic 
materials have been reported by others (Parr and Colacicco, 1987; Maraikar 
and Amarasiri, 1988). 
Table 2 shows that all the organic materials contain appreciable amounts of 
heavy metals such as Fe, Mn, Cu, Zn, B, and Cd. Animal dung contain 
higher proportions of Cd, Zn, Cu, Mn, and Fe compared to plant materials 
and compost. Several publications have reported on the distribution of 
heavy metals in organic wastes from different countries (Sommers, 1976; 
Parr and Colacicco, 1987). It is also noteworthy that B content in plant 
materials such as gliricidia, acacia, pueraria, calapogonium, and 
centrosema are higher than in animal manures. 
24 
Table 1 : Total macro nutrient content (oven dry basis) - (%) 
N P K Mg Ca Na o.c 
(a) Animal manures 
Cattle manure 1.2-1.9 0.2-0.5 0.5-1.1 0.5-0.6 1.3-1.8 0.1-0.3 23-24 
Farm Yard manure (FYM) 1.2-1.8 0.4-0.6 1.1-1.9 0.5-1.0 0.5-1.1 0.07-0.1 18-22 
Goat manure 2.2-3.4 0.3-0.7 1.5-2.5 0.4-0.8 1.5-2.4 0.02-0.3 17-20 
Pig manure 1.0-2.0 0.6-0.9 0.4-0.9 0.4-0.6 1.0-1.5 0.1-0.4 20-22 
Poultry manure 
Broiler litter 2.0-2.3 0.6-1.0 1.7-2.0 0.5-0.6 1.0-4.9 0.2-0.3 24-26 
Layer litter 1.8-2.4 0.6-1.2 1.6-2.0 0.4-0.7 2.7-5.3 0.2-0.3 21-24 
(b) Other dead materials 
Biogas residue 1.7-2.0 1.2-1.8 1.0-1.6 0.8-1.0 1.8-2.0 0.1-0.2 27-29 
Compost 1.3-1.7 0.3-0.6 0.4-0.7 0.2-0.5 0.8-2.0 0.05-0.09 15-40 
Sewage sludge 0.6-0.8 0.1-0.2 0.1-0.2 0.1-0.2 0.2-1.0 0.01-0.03 22-29 
(c) Green manures 
Acacia 1.8-3.0 0.1-0.3 1.5-2.0 0.3-0.4 1.0-1.2 0.06-0.08 25-28 
Calapogonium 2.6-2.9 0.1-0.3 1.6-2.6 0.4-0.5 1.2-1.8 0.01-0.1 25-28 
Centrosema 2.8-2.9 0.1-0.2 1.8-2.4 0.4-0.5 1.2-1.6 0.01-0.1 25-28 
Gliricidia 2.5-3.5 0.1-0.2 1.3-1.7 0.3-0.5 1.0-1.9 0.01-0.1 21-23 
Pueraria 2.4-3.0 0.1-0.2 1.8-2.5 0.3-0.5 1.1-1.4 0.01-0.1 25-28 
Table 2 : Total micro nutrient content (oven dry basis) - (mg/kg) 
Organic material Fe Mn Cu Zn B Cd 
(a) Animal manures 
Cattle manure 690-1518 167-389 24-40 128-183 13-30 2-3 
Farm Yard manure (FYM) 1135-3515 229-668 17-29 83-128 12-27 1-3 
Goat manure 1449-2174 246-505 20-38 112-184 29-66 2-3 
Pig manure 1020-1990 180-207 45-48 186-575 4-13 2-3 
Poultry manure 
1-2 Broiler litter 723-1565 213-421 27-40 166-271 15-27 
Layer litter 1144-2215 287-450 22-38 182-329 12-23 1-3 
(b) Other dead materials 
Biogas residue 1097-1644 402-616 37-53 300-412 22-46 2-3 
Compost 2090-4064 201-505 11-25 75-169 12-20 2-3 
Sewage sludge 2275-3322 100-287 7-11 69-177 3-5 1-2 
(c) Green manures 
Acacia 870-994 78-92 7-9 54-61 46-49 0.5-1 
Calapogonium 340-542 80-140 4-6 64-69 30-33 0.5-1 
Centrosema 252-420 38-62 4-7 42-49 79-84 0.5-1 
Gliricidia 212-450 85-156 4-5 57-70 41-69 0.5-1 
Pueraria 117-280 82-120 4-6 64-70 20-24 0.5-1 
The potential of organic materials to improve the quality of agricultural soil 
has been discussed elsewhere (Tennakoon et al., 1995). Data presented in 
this paper show that both plant materials and animal manure have 
considerable amounts of plant nutrients. Thus continual applications of 
these organic manures will not only supply plant nutrients but also enrich 
agricultural soils. However, the possible accumulation of Cd, Zn, and Cu 
needs to be further investigated. These metals enter the soil as ions or 
chelates following decomposition of organic matter. Research publications 
on accumulation of heavy metals in soil and its subsequent effect on crops 
in the context of Sri Lanka are scarce. 
The C/N ratio of some selected organic materials has been shown to be in 
the range of 1:1 -15:1 (Brady, 1994). However, compost samples showed a 
higher value of C/N ratio such as 11:1 - 23:1 (Brady, 1994). Those with 
lower C/N ratio are readily decomposed by microbes, which eliminate the 
need to supplement with N sources to enhance degradation (Brady, 1994). 
However, materials, which have a C/N ratio of 20, may need 
supplementation of N to enhance the decomposition rate. 
Any of the organic materials tested may be used as a nutrient source for 
coconut. On the basis that the entire N requirement of coconut is supplied 
by applying the appropriate quantity of organic manure, the requirement of 
other nutrients, to be supplied as chemical fertilizer, can be calculated. Such 
estimates for some selected organic manures are given in Table 3. Based 
on nutrient content of animal manure and green manure recommended for 
adult coconut palm by Coconut Research Institute are given in Table 3. 
The inorganic fertilizer recommendation for adult coconut palm is 3 kg of 
Adult Palm Mixture and 1 kg of dolomite per palm per year. The cost of the 
fertilizer is about 46 rupees (According to the.fertilizer prices of year 2001). 
However, most of the small holders can either produce organic manures by 
composting the wastes or obtain animal husbandry wastes in the home 
gardens. The farmers those who are utilizing home made organic manures 
can substitute the necessary nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium and 
magnesium nutrient components completely or partially for their palms. 
These farmers will have to pay only for the muriate of potash (Table 4). 
27 
Table 3: Additional P, K and Mg fertilizer requirements for an adult coconut 
palm when organic manure is used to supply the full requirement of N 
Quantity of 
organic manure 
to supply N (Kg) 
Quantity of chemical fertilizer (g) 
Soil type Saphos 
phosphate 
Muriate of 
potash 
Dolomite 
Lateritic or quartzitic gravelly 
loams, sands in coastal areas 
and river flood plains 
Cattle manure 
(moisture 20-
30%) 
30 1250 
Deep, reddish or yellowish 
loams in coastal areas, deep 
colluvial loams at foothills, 
alluvial loams in flood plains 
20 - 1000 -
Lateritic or quartzitic gravelly 
loams, sands in coastal areas 
and river flood plains 
Goat manure 
(moisture 20-
25%) 
25 - 800 --
Deep, reddish or yellowish 
loams in coastal areas, deep 
colluvial loams at foothills, 
alluvial loams in flood plains 
20 - 650 -
Lateritic or quartzitic gravelly 
loams, sands in coastal areas 
and river flood plains 
Poultry manure 
(moisture 20-
30%) 
30 - 750 -
Deep, reddish or yellowish 
loams in coastal areas, deep 
colluvial loams at foothills, 
alluvial loams in flood plains 
20 -- 650 -
Lateritic or quartzitic gravelly 
loams, sands in coastal areas 
and river flood plains 
Gliricidia 
(moisture 60-
70%) 
30 350 1000 500 
Deep, reddish or yellowish 
loams in coastal areas, deep 
colluvial loams at foothills, 
alluvial loams in flood plains 
20 250 850 500 
28 
Table 4: Cost of recommended inorganic and organic fertilizer 
application/palm/year (Purchased and home made) 
Name of fertilizer 
Quantity 
(kg) 
Cost (Rs) 
(Purchased) 
(Inorganic & 
Organic) 
Cost (Rs.) 
(Home made) 
(Organic) 
Cost (Rs.) 
Reduction 
Purchased 
Cost (Rs.) 
Reduction 
Home 
made 
Adult Palm Mixture 
Dolomite 
3 
1 
46 - 0 . 0 
Cattle Manure 
Muriate of Potash 
(MOP) 
3 
1.2 
54 23.90 -8 + 22.10 
Goat manure 
Muriate of Potash 
(MOP) 
25 
0.8 
41 15.95 + 5 + 30.05 
Poultry Manure 
Muriate of Potash 
(MOP) 
30 
0.75 
45 14.95 + 1 + 31.05 
If 30 kg of cattle manure plus 1.2 kg of M.O.P is used the cost will be 23.90 
rupees per palm/year. If 25 kg of goat manure and 0.8 kg of M.O.P is used 
the cost is 15.95 rupees. In the case of poultry manure 30 kg and 0.75 
M.O.P the cost will be about 14.95 rupees. If the organic manures are 
purchased at the rate of 1 kg per 1 rupee, then the cost will be about 
rupees 54, 41 and 45 respectively. 
CONCLUSION 
Locally available organic materials contain low cost amounts of macro and 
micro nutrients and these materials could be used as low cost sources of 
nutrients for coconut. 
29 
REFERENCES 
Brady, N.C. 1994. The Nature and Properties of soils 10 edition. Macmillan 
Publishing Company New York. 
Cresser, M.S. and Parson, T.W. 1929. Sulphuric perchloric acid digestion of plant 
materials for the determination of N, P, K, Ca & Mg. Analytics Chimisa Acta 
109,431-436. 
Flaig, W. 1984. Soil organic matter as a source of nutrients. In : Organic matter and 
rice, pp 73-92. International Rice Research Institute, Manila, Philippines. 
Maraikar, S. and Amarasiri, S.L. 1988. Plant nutrient content of animal wastes. 
Tropical Agriculturist 144, 79-87. 
Marr, I.L and Cressor, M.S. 1983. Environmental Chemical Analysis. International 
Text Book Company, New York p 166-167. 
Nelson, D.W and Sommers, L.E 1975. A rapid and accurate method for estimating 
organic carbon in soil. Proceeding of the Indiana Academy of Science, 84,456-
462. 
Parr, J.F. and Colacicco, D. 1987. Organic materials as alternative nutrient sources 
In: Energy in plant nutrition and pest control (ed.Helsel, Z.R.) pp 81-99. 
Elesevier Science Publishers, B. V. Amasterdam, The Netherlands. 
Sommers, L.E. 1977. Chemical composition of sewage sludges and analysis of their 
potential use as fertilizers. Journal of Environmental Quality 6, (2) 225-232. 
Tennakoon, N.A. 1990. Goat manure as a soil 'ameliorant' and yield 'stimulant' in 
coconut. COCOS, The Coconut Research Institute of Sri Lanka 8,26-32. 
Tennakoon, N.A., Mahindapala, R & Widanapathirana, S.1995. Effect of application 
of organic manure on the quality of coconut soils. Journal of the Natural 
Science Committee of Sri Lanka 23 (4), 171-182. 
30 


Nutrient content of some locally available organic materials and their potential as alternative sources of nutrients for coconut

Kumarasinghe, K.H.A.L.S.

Gunathilake, K.D.P.P.

A study on processing of a dehydrated food product from young coconut meat

Peris, T.S.G.

Samarajeewa, S.R.

Journal of the National Institute of Plantation Management, (2003), 19(02) 
ECONOMIC LOSS OF MITE INFESTATION OF COCONUT TO 
INDIVIDUAL FARMERS IN PUTTALAM DISTRICT: 
PRELIMINARY FINDINGS 
TSG Peiris, MTN Fernando and S R Samarajeewa 
Coconut Research Institute 
AREAS COVERED 
A field survey was carried out from February to April 2003 in Kalpitiya and 
Wanathawilluwa areas to assess the economic loss of coconuts due to mite infestation. 
(Table I) Mite infested coconuts of harvested heaps were focused. So, the findings reflect 
the economic loss of only harvested coconuts although mite infestation also causes 
loosing of crop during the entire span of bunch formation in terms of button nut shedding. 
The latter loss is being monitored and the findings will be published soon. 
Table 1 Areas covered by the field survey 
Kalpitiya area (8 estates) Wanathawilluwa area (6 estates) 
• Kalladi • Karathiuv 
• Kandakuliya • Serakkuliya 
• Vellankara • Puliyankulam 
• Kalpitiya • Bandaranayakapura 
• Nagamaduwa 
Sampling Procedure 
The survey team visited coconut estates where the picking was: a) either being conducted 
at the time of visit, or b) completed at most three days prior. From the coconut heap, 2% 
of coconuts (but minimum 20 nuts) were randomly drawn from at least four places. Nuts 
60 Journal of the National Institute of Plantation Management 
Economic Loss of Mite Infestation of Coconut 
selected were pooled and grouped into two size classes based on the nut price and four 
categories each in a size class based on the severity of the mite infestation in the nuts 
(Figure 1 and Table 2). This was done in consultation with the owner/buyer. 
Figure 1: Grouping of nuts based on size and level of mite infestation 
Grouping of nuts 
\ 7 
\ 7 
Size 1 (full price) 
\ 7 
Size 2 (half price) 
• Healthy (H) H 
• Mite Discontinued (M_D) M_D 
© Mite Continued (M_C) M_C 
• Deformed (D) D 
• Puhu{P) P 
6 J Journal of the National Institute of Plantation Management 
T S G Peiris, MTN Fernando and S R Samarajeewa 
Table 2: Description of categories 
Status Description 
Healthy (H): Nuts having <10% of scars of mite infestation 
Mite Discontinued (M_D): Nuts having > 10% scares, but the spread of scars 
are discontinued from the perianth. This 
discontinuation was considered due to non-
recursion of mite infestation recently 
Mite Continued (M_C): nuts having >10% scars and the scars are continued 
from the perianth 
Deformed (D): Shapes of nuts are abnormal, and are often 
characterized by a peculiar cut/gully 
Puhu (P): Nuts having no coconut water inside 
RESULTS 
Table 3 shows the percentage distribution of different types of nuts in the survey sample 
irrespective of nut sizes. Both M_D and M_C nuts were considered as mite infested nuts 
(Table 2). 
Table 3 Percentage distribution of nuts 
Type Kalpitiya Wanathavilluwa Overall 
Healthy (H) 26.9 39.5 31.9 
Mite infested (M_D+M_C) 71.0 58.9 66.2 
Deformed and puhu (D+P) 2.1 1.6 1.9 
Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 
62 Journal of the National Institute of Plantation Management 
Economic Loss of Mite Infestation of Coconut 
It is clear that the incidence of mite infestation is higher in Kalpitiya area (71%) than in 
Wanathavilluwa area (59%), the average incidence of the entire survey sample being 
66%. 
Assessment of economic loss to individual farmers when crop is sold on number of 
nuts basis 
After rejecting deformed and puhu nuts, the distribution of nuts in a random sample of 
1000 nuts were examined (Table 4). 
Table 4 Distribution of nuts in a random sample of 1 000 nuts 
Size Type Number of Nuts 
Large H 302 
M-D 381 
M-C 184 
Sub total 867 
Small H 24 
M-D 51 
M-C 58 
Sub total 133 
Total 1000 
Thus if 1000 nuts are selected randomly, the number of small nuts is 24+51+58=133. Of 
133 small nuts, 109 (=51 + 58) nuts are mite infected. It is assumed that balance 24 small 
nuts is due to advise climate and other natural conditions. 
Table 4 gives the nut distribution under the existing situation of the surveyed area. We 
now compare this with a situation where mite infestation would not have been in place 
(Table 5). 
63 Journal of the National Institute of Plantation Management 
T S G Peiris, M T N Fernando and S R Samarajeewa 
Table 5 Comparison of nut distribution when mite infestation exists and does not exist 
Situation 
Mite infestation exists Mite infestation were not exist 
• Larger nuts 867 976=(867 + 109) 
• Smaller nuts due to: 
a. climate 24 24 
b. mite 109 
• Total nuts 1 000 1 000 
The economic loss of mite infestation to an individual farmer when the crop is sold on 
number of nuts basis, can now be computed as follows. 
Assume the nut price is Rs.10 per nut. Then the price of a smaller size nut is Rs. 5.00. As 
Table 6 shows, the income a farmer, having a mite-infested estate can obtain by selling a 
random lot of 1000 nuts at the rate of Rs, 10.00 per nut would be Rs. 9335.00 and the 
corresponding income, had the estate been mite free would have been is Rs. 9880.00. 
Table 6 Income by selling 1000 nuts 
Situation Income of selling 1000 nuts (Rs) 
Mite free Rs.9880 (= Rs 10x976 + 5 x 2 4 ) 
Mite exists Rs.9335 (= Rs 10 x 867 + 5 x 24 + 5 x 109) 
So, the percentage of income loss due to mite infestation is 5.5%. This means that the 
farmers in the mite-infested area would have received 5.5% more income than the current 
income they receive from their coconuts, sold on number of nuts basis, had the mite 
infestation been not in place. 
64 Journal of the National Institute of Plantation Management 
Economic Loss of Mite Infestation of Coconut 
Income if: 
Nut price 
(Rs/nut) 
Mite free 
(Rs/1000 nuts) 
Mite exists 
(Rs/1000 nuts) 
Loss 
(Rs/1000 nuts) 
10 9 880 9335 545 
11 10 868 10 269 600 
12 11 856 11 202 654 
13 12 844 12 136 709 
14 13 832 13 069 763 
15 14 820 14 003 818 
16 15 808 14 936 872 
Note: Calculations are based for 1 000 nuts in Rupees. 
Figure 2 Income from 1000 coconut nuts vs. nut price (in Rupees) 
i ' " . . . . _ 
I n c o m e from 1 000 c o c o n u t s v s nut pr ice (tn Rs) 
17000 
15000 
£ 13000 • 
gj 11000-
§ 9000 -
7000 
5000 
j ~ tk Mite free — • — M i t e ex i s t s 
65 Journal of the National Institute of Plantation Management 
Farmers' absolute loss of income increases with the increase in nut price as evidenced by 
the Table 7 and Figure 2. 
Table 7 Economic losses at varying nut prices 
T S G Peiris, M T N Fernando and S R Samarajeewa 
The results of preliminary analysis reveal the following: 
• The incidence of mite infestation of harvested coconuts in the severely affected 
Kalpitiya area of Puttalam district, as visually observed in the outer skin of 
coconuts, is 71%. 
• The individual growers in the area would have received 5.5% more income from 
the harvested coconuts, when sold on number of nuts basis, had the mite 
infestation not existed. 
• Higher the nut prices, greater the absolute loss of income to farmers. 
However as we have not monitored the button nut shedding due to mite infestation, the 
5.5% income loss tends to be an underestimation of the real loss. 
We have now initiated the monitoring of button nut shedding due to mite infestation. 
Also, we monitor the copra weight as affected by mite infestation. The study is in 
progress, covering complete year, depending on availability of Cess funds. 
66 Journal of the National Institute of Plantation Management 


Economic loss of mite infestation of coconut to individual farmers in Puttalam district: Preliminary findings

Perera, P.I.P.

COCOS (2003), 15 53-59 
Printed in Sri Lanka 
CYTOLOGICAL EXAMINATION OF MICROSPORE 
DEVELOPMENT FOR MICROSPORE AND 
ANTHER CULTURE OF COCONUT 
(Cocos nucifera L.) cv SRI LANKA TALL 
P. I. P. Perera 
Coconut Research Institute, Lunuwila, Sri Lanka. 
ABSTRACT 
Production of double haploids through anther and microspore culture has a 
considerable potential for shortening the breeding cycle in coconut. The 
developmental stage of a microspore is a critical factor in androgensis and 
microspores at late uninucleate stage have been shown to be the most 
suitable stage for in vitro culture for many crop species. Routine cytological 
; examination of microspores for identifying the correct stage for culture is 
tedious and time-consuming. In the present study, a correlation between the 
microspore developmental stage and age of the spadix (in Sri Lanka Tall 
coconut) in terms of weeks-before-splitting (WBS) was established for 
practical convenience of anther and microspore culture. At the age of eight 
WBS, anthers consisted of microspore mother cells. Within one week, these 
cells underwent meiosis and produced tetrads. The release of microspores 
from tetrads could be observed in six WBS spadices. Microspores at late 
- uninucleate stage, which is reported as the most suitable stage for 
androgenesis, could be obtained from three WBS spadices. 
INTRODUCTION 
Cocos nucifera L. is one of the most important perennial crops in tropical 
countries. It is an open pollinated crop that yields high heterozygosity within 
a progeny and this presents a major problem in conventional breeding 
programs due to the long life span of the crop (Thanh-Tuyen and Guzman, 
1983a). Therefore double haploids have a great potential to shorten 
conventional breeding programs. Anther and microspore culture are two 
techniques for in vitro production of double haploids. The developmental 
stage of microspore within anthers of an individual flower bud is a critical 
factor in haploid induction. 
The uninucleate stage of microspores is the most suitable stage for 
androgenesis in many crop species (Thanh-Tuyen and Guzman, 1983 a, 
Metwally et. al, 1998). Several studies have been carried out to identify a 
correlation between the developmental stage of microspore and an external 
marker. It has been shown that in Cucurbita pepo L., male buds having a 
length of 9-10 mm, contained anthers with mid or late uninucleate 
53 
microspores (Metwally et al., 1998). Nitsch (1971), reported that the crucial 
stage for anther culture of Nicotiana tabacum was when microspores are 
about to undergo the first mitosis and that stage could be recognized from 
the development of the petals in the floral bud. Sunderland (1974) and 
Thanh-Tuyen and Guzman (1983 b) established the correlation between 
age of the spadix in terms of WBS and the developmental stage of coconut 
microspore. However, microspore development in coconut could vary with 
the genotype and external environment. Routine examination of 
microspores prior to in vitro culture is tedious and time consuming. A 
convenient method for collecting anthers at the correct developmental 
stage without testing each one of them before culturing will greatly facilitate 
in vitro culture work. 
Therefore the objective of the present study was to establish a correlation 
between the stage of the development of microspores and the age of the 
spadix, of Sri Lanka Tall coconut under local environmental conditions, 
which will provide a simple, practical method of collecting anthers at the 
desired developmental stage. 
MATERIALS AND METHOD 
Experimental material: 
According to Menon and Pandalai (1958), most of the tall cultivars of 
coconut produce 12-14 leaves per annum. Thus it can be assumed that the 
average number of spadices produced per annum is also 12-14, as each 
leaf has a spadix at its axil. Therefore the interval between splitting of two 
successive spadices is about 25-30 days or four weeks. 
Flower buds from Sri Lanka Tall coconut were used as experimental 
material. Palms with a day-old inflorescence ie. few hours after the splitting 
of the spadix (0 stage) and two unopened spadices aged four WBS (-1 
stage) and eight WBS (-2 stage) were selected. Spikelets from unopened 
spadices were collected at weekly intervals (flower buds were obtained from 
the middle part of the spikelet), so that sampling could be done from 1-8 
WBS. Samples were collected from ten palms over a period of one year. 
The date of splitting of an unopened spadix was estimated, from the 
splitting date of the youngest opened one. In each palm, date of the natural 
splitting of the youngest open spadix (taken as 0) was recorded, and the 
following spadices (-1 and -2 ) were forced open and spikelets were 
collected at weekly intervals. 
54 
Cytological examination: 
The florets were taken from the middle part of two spikelets and 
immediately after collection, they were placed in vials containing cold water 
at 4 °C (Thanh-Tuyen and Guzman, 1983 b). The vials were kept at 4 °C for 
two hours. Then the water in the vials was replaced with Farmer's fixative 
(Absolute alcohol: Glacial acetic acid, 3:1) and kept at 4 °C for another 24 
hours. The florets were then transferred and maintained in 70% ethanol 
until further use. 
Three out of six anthers from each fixed floret were squashed in a drop of 
4% aceto-carmine on a slide. After removal of debris, a cover slip was 
. placed on the squashed material and examined under the light microscope 
and photographed. 
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 
The preliminary investigations revealed that generally, at a given time, two 
successive unopened spadices were visible on the crown of a palm. During 
dry weather, only one unopened spadix could be clearly seen and the 
second one is hardly visible. However, Thanh-Tuyen and Guzman (1983 b) 
working with coconut cv Laguna Tall', reported that three successive 
unopened spadices are visible on a tree. This could be due to the difference 
in genotype and environmental conditions. 
With regard to the microspore development, a gradient of maturity exists in 
the flower buds of each rachilla. The floral buds present in the top portion 
and the basal portion (those attached closely to the female flowers) of the 
rachilla are more mature than those present in the middle portion. The 
present study also indicated that all the microspores contained within the six 
anthers of an individual flower bud were of the same developmental stage. 
Cytological observation on microspore development was carried out using 
spadices of different ages, and the results are summarized in Table 1. 
i 
55 
Table 1: Stages of microspore development observed at different 
ages of the spadix (WBS) in Sri Lanka Tall coconut. 
Age of spadix Description of developmental stage 
(WBS) 
8 Microspore mother cells (MMC) 
7 Isolated MMCs and tetrads after meiosis 
6 Released oblong shaped microspores in early 
uninucleate stage 
5 Spherical shaped microspores 
4 Microspores with vacuoles and thick exine in mid 
uninucleate stage 
3 Spherical microspores with distinct nucleus in late 
uni-nucleate stage 
2/1 First microspore mitosis 
1/newly open Binucleate microspore grains with internal deposits. 
Microspore mother cells (MMCs) were observed in spadices aged 8 WBS. 
These cells were more or less polygonal in outline and compactly arranged 
in the microspore sac. The cytoplasm of these cells was dense with a large 
nucleus situated close to the cell wall. These nuclei were spherical with a 
well-defined nuclear membrane (Fig.lA). These MMCs become separated 
from each other and rounding off of the cells and thickening of the walls 
could be observed between 7 and 8 WBS. The cytoplasm of these cells was 
compact and a space between the cell wall and the cell membrane could be 
seen (Fig.lB). At this stage, the average width and the length of a 
microspore mother cell were approximately 49 urn and 42 u.m respectively. 
These microspore mother cells underwent meiosis (Fig.lC and D) and 
produced tetrads (Fig.lE). Nambiar and Swaminathn (1960) reported that 
meiosis could be observed in coconut florets collected 50-60 days before 
opening of spadix. 
The daughter cells had thin and uneven cell walls and they were dissociated 
from the surrounding callose matrix during 6 WBS (Fig.lF). After another 
week, the cells became more spherical in shape with an even cell wall 
(Fig.lG). The average length and width of these cells were 46 urn and 33 
urn respectively. The cells became spherical in shape due to vacuolation 
and the cytoplasm was dense at 4 WBS (Fig.lH). According to Tuyen and 
Guzman (1983 b), once the spores were released from tetrads, they 
enlarged rapidly and soon became spherical in shape. However, the 
present study indicated that it takes about two weeks for the spores to 
become spherical in shape. 
As a result of the prominent wall formation, microspores were covered with 
thick exine and intine. The cytoplasm of the cells became clear and the 
central nucleus was prominent at 3 WBS (Fig.11). The first microspore 
mitosis (Fig.U) could be observed at 2 or 1 WBS. Just after mitosis, both 
vegetative and generative nuclei were clear at the centre of the spore (Fig.1 f 
56 
K). One nucleus moves to the periphery of the microspore with further 
maturing. These binucleate pollen grains with smooth exine were observed 
at anthesis and a prominent furrow, running along the length of the grain 
was visible (Fig.1L). The average diameter of a pollen grain was 49 jam. 
Fig .1 . Stages of microspore development in Cocos nucifera L. cv Sri 
Lanka Tall. A. Compactly arranged MMCs. B. A MMC separated 
from adjoining cells. C. A MMC undergoing meiosis in late 
prophase 1. D. A MMC in Telophase E. A tetrad. F. An oval 
shaped microspore with thin and uneven cell wall. G. An oblong 
microspore with even cell wall. H. A spherical microspore with dense 
cytoplasm and large vacuole. I. A microspore with clear cytoplasm 
and prominent nucleus. J . Microspores undergoing first mitosis. K. 
Binucleate pollen grains with both nuclei at the center of the pollen 
grain. L. A binucleate pollen grain with one nucleus at the periphery 
(Mag. X 280). 
5 7 
Sunderland (1973) identified three phases in microsporogenesis in higher 
plants. Phase 1 was meiosis and formation of tetrads whereas phase 2 was 
dissociation of tetrads and development of individual microspores. The final 
phase was maturation of microspores into microspore grains. In the present 
study, these three phases were clearly observed in coconut 
microsporogenesis. 
Many studies have shown that developmental stage of microspore is a 
critical factor for success in anther culture. Huang and Keller (1989) pointed 
out that the microspores from late uninucleate to early binucleate stage of 
Brassica napus were highly embryogenic. It was reported that mid or late 
uninucleate microspores of Cucurbita pepo L. were used for anther culture 
(Metwally et al. 1998). Nitch in 1971 observed that stamens of Nicotiana 
tabacum cultured at the tetrad stage or when starch was being produced in 
the microspore grains failed to produce embryos. It has been indicated that 
androgenic development of Cyclamen persicum had occurred frequently in 
cultured anthers containing microspores at the early uninucleate stage 
(Ishizaka, 1998). Tuyen and Guzman (1983 b) also indicated that the 
optimum stage for microspore and anther culture of coconut is just before, 
during or immediately after the first microspore mitosis. 
In the present study, the correlation between the stage of development of 
microspores and the age of the spadix in terms of WBS was established. 
Based on the correlation, it can be concluded that spadices of 3 WBS stage 
are suitable to obtain late uninucleate stage, which is known as the best 
stage for androgenesis of many crop species. 
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 
I am grateful to Mr. D.T. Mathes for the advice given on sample collection. I 
gratefully acknowledge the invaluable assistance of the staff of the Tissue 
Culture Division in conducting the study. Special thanks are extended to Mr. 
Kapila Prasanna for his assistance in sample collection. 
REFERENCES 
Huang, B. and Keller, W.A. (1989). Microspore culture technology. J. of Tissue 
Culture Methods, 12(4): 171-178. 
Ishizaka, H. (1998). Production of microspore derived plants by anther culture of an 
interspecific F1 hybrid between Cyclamen persicum and C. purpurascens. J. of 
Plant Cell, Tissue and Organ Culture, 54: 21-28. 
Menon, K.V.P. and Pandalai, K.M. (1958). The coconut palm. A Monograph. 18-54 , 
Indian Central Coconut Committee, Ernakulam, S India. 
58 i 
Metwally, E.I. Moustafa, S.A. El-Sawy, B.I. and Shalaby, T.A. (1998). Haploid 
plantlets derived by anther culture of Cucurbita pepo. Plant cell, Tissue and 
Organ Culture, 52:171-176. 
Nitch, J.P. (1971). The production of haploid embryos from pollen grains. In: pollen 
development and physiology, 234 p, J. Heslop Harrison (Ed.), London 
Butterworths. 
Sunderland, N. (1973). Pollen and anther culture. In: Plant tissue and cell culture, 
205 p,1 s t ed., H.E. Street (Ed.) Scientific publications, Oxford. 
Sunderland, N. (1974). Anther culture as a means of haploid induction. In: Haploids 
in higher plants: Advances and potentials, 99 p, K.J. Kasha (Ed.), University of 
Guelph press, Toronto. 
Sunderland, N. and Dunwell, J.M. (1977). Anther and pollen culture. In: Plant tissue 
and cell culture, 225 p, 2 n d ed., H.E. Street (Ed.), Blackwell Scientific Publisher, 
Oxford. 
Thanh-Tuyen, N.T. and De Guzman, E.V. (1983 a). Formation of pollen embryos in 
coconut cultured anthers of coconut {Cocos nucifera L). Pit. Sci. Letters, 29: 
81-88. 
Thanh-Tuyen, N.T. and De Guzman, E.V. (1983 b). Pollen developmental stages for 
coconut anther culture. Phillipp. J. Biol., 12(1-2): 135-144. 
59 
COCOS (2003), 15 60 - 81 
Printed in Sri Lanka i 
SOCIAL ACCEPTABILITY OF COCONUT-BASED AGROFORESTRY 
MODELS DEVELOPED TO SMALLHOLDERS IN SRI LANKA 
W. B. K. Peiris 3, M. T. N. Fernando 6, H. M. G. S. B. Hitinayakec, 
K. B. Dassanayake b, H. A. J. Gunathilakeb and S. D. J. N. Subasinghe b 
" HARDY Advanced Technical Institute, Inginiyagala Road, Ampara, Sri Lanka, 
b
 Coconut Research Institute, Lunuwila Sri Lanka, 
c
 Dept. of Crop Science, Faculty ofAgriculture, University of Peradeniya, 
Peradeniya, Sri Lanka 
ABSTRACT 
Coconut Research Institute of Sri Lanka (CRISL) has designed and 
established twenty-six coconut-based agroforestry models in different 
agroecological regions of smallholder coconut farmers' fields commencing 
1987. This study evaluates the conformity of four selected models with the 
existing resource base of smallholder coconut farmers and elicits their 
perceptions on these models. The selected models include: mixed farming 
for Wet Zone (model 1), mixed cropping for Wet Zone (model 2), mixed 
farming for Wet Intermediate Zone (model 3) and intercropping for Wet 
Intermediate Zone (model 4), established respectively at Gaspe, 
Hanchapola, Katuneriya and Thulawala. Conformity of these models with 
the existing resource base of the farmers was analyzed by comparing labor 
and cash requirement of the models with the availability of these two 
resources at farmers' disposal while the farmers' perceptions were elicited 
through a survey using a structured questionnaire supplemented with 
informal discussions. Results revealed that all the selected agroforestry 
models conform with the existing cash resource base of the farmer at 
current scale of operation, but not so with the family labor supply. However, 
both these resources may turn out to be limiting constraints once the current 
scale of operation is expanded. The farmers' expressed mix perceptions on 
agroforestry models in terms of model layout, crop composition, suitability to 
socioeconomic circumstances etc, with an overall positive assessment 
implying that the models developed by the CRISL are acceptable for them. 
INTRODUCTION 
In Sri Lanka, majority of coconut lands are maintained as monocultures. 
This gives relatively low returns to the farmer per unit land area than its 
potential under intensified land use systems. Coconut-based agroforestry 
i.e. cropping and farming with coconut plantations, is one of the strategies to 
efficient utilization of coconut lands and it also provides many socio­
economic advantages. 
60 


Cytological examination of microspore development for microspore and anther culture of coconut (Cocos nucifera L.) cv Sri lanka tall

Wijebandara, D.M.D.I.

Panditharatna, B.D.P.

Sabaratnam, S.

Kurundukumbura, C.P.A.

Loss of nutrients in a high yielding coconut plantation through removal of plant materials from the field

National Science Foundation of Sri Lanka

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