Wittenberg University Journals

Rutledge, Gil

English

Embedded and Unilateral Journalists:  How their Access to Sources Affected  their Framing During the 2003 Iraq War

Kings at Sea: Examining a Forgotten Way of Life

Green, Caitlin

Monstrous Races on the Central Tympanum at  Vézelay: Constructing “the Other” in Medieval Society

Jensen, Peter

19th Century Cotton Cultivation: Russian Turkestan and the United States

Cengel, Lauren

For the Love of a Child: The Care and Protection of  Feudal Wards in Medieval England

Trepanier, Amanda

Globally Connected, Locally Developed

Daily, Ruby

Vol. XXXIV, Spring 2010 ° 4
Hartje Paper:
The Society of Separatists at Zoar: Demonstrating the
American Idealism of a Commune
Ruby Daily
The traditional understanding of American
ideals is formed by a collective, historical
consciousness. Democracy, freedom, morality
and, particularly, individualism remain customary
Ameticanvalues. The archetype of this "American
spirit" is, in theory, resourceful individualistic
achievement fulfilled through the mechanisms of
freedom and integrity. However, this "American
idealism" as a vision of our ideological past should
not be so narrow as to reject its realization in less
than conventional circumstances. An interesting,
and often neglected, facet of American history is the
proliferation of communal utopias on the American
frontiers in the early nineteenth century.1 These
idealistic groups viewed the untamed territories
as an opportunity to construct societies free from
the encumbrances be they political, religious,
or economic--which motivated their migration.
The most successful communal societies were in
fact religious sects? The early nineteenth century,
Northeast Ohio frontier experienced a proliferation
of religious, communal enterprises such as Kirtland,
Shaker Heights, Talli-nadge and Zoar? Their
development is illustrative of a widespread trend
of utopian societies across the frontier. The Society
of the Separatists of Zoar, established in 1817,
perhaps best exemplifies the challenge of American
principles at the boundaries of civilization: to merge
pragmatism with the morality and liberty cherished
as the consortium of American ethics.
The Zoarites originated from Wiirttemberg
Germany, and were a strong Separatist faction
in the late eighteenth century, who wished to
withdraw from the Lutheran church? They
rejected "worldliness," church ritualism (like
baptism or holidays), supporting pacifism and
an individualistic connection to God? Their
convictions prohibited military service, church
attendance, or swearing oaths to secular authority
and they were consequently persecuted. To
escape this oppression, a large body of separatists,
immigrated to the United States in 1817.7 Separatist
leader, Joseph B umler (colorfully depicted as a
"crippled hunchback," possessing "a large protruding
eye") coordinated the purchase of 5,500 acres in
northeastern Ohio, costing $25,000." They named
the settlement "Zoar," referencing "the city to
which Lot fled" after the destruction of Sodom;
evoldng imagery of deliverance from imputity?
Joseph B umler outlined the religious code of the
community in his "Principles of the Separatists,"
which confirmed their commitment to personal
faith, pacifism, dissent from repressive institutions,
and sectarianism?°
Zoar was not initially communal. The Zoarites
had originally intended to "hold their interests
separately," and subdivide the land.u However, in
their first year they suffered the economic hardship
of the harsh Ohio frontier coupled with a hefty
mortgage, and many families were unable to support
themselves. = So, in 1819 they established the
Society of Separatists of Zoar, signing a contract
instituting a collective society, and relinquishing all
personal property to an elected board of Trustees.
The formation of a commune was a practical shift
in the Zoarite objective; however communalism
proved an ideal medium for a group attempting to
integrate religious idealism and frontier survival.
As poor, religiously oppressed German peasants
they had envisioned a new land in which they
could attain religious freedom, equality and
economic prosperity in the context of a moral
society. Encountering obstacles, and facing failure,
they became a collaborative to survive and thereby
ensured unity, and fiscal stability. The Zoarites
developed a "cooperative economic unit," and
through employment constructing the nearby
Ohio Canal, raised capital to pay off their debt and
furtheimore established a flourishing trade. By
1838 Zoar "had an estimated wealth of $2 million." '
2 • The Wittenberg History Journal
The nature of their struggle reflects American ideals:
flexibility, pragmatism and freedom.
Unfortunately this example of American
values has frequently been demeaned, and the
cooperative societies inaccurately perceived as
communist political entities. Older sources on
Zoar, and other contemporary communal societies,
exhibit overt condescension; failing to recognize
that the Zoarites viewed the commune as an
expedient and convenient vehicle for both their
religious model and financial security, rather than as
a political stance. Although conventional American
culture did eventually overtake and end the frontier
of communal utopias, it does not diminish their
significance as part of the multi[aceted narrative of
American ideals.
Bibliography
Durnbaugh, DonaId. "Work and Hope: The Spirituality of
the Radical Pietist Communitarians." Chuech History
39 no. 1 (1970): 72 90.
Randall, E.O. "The Separatist Society of Zoar: an
Experiment in Communism-From its Commencement
to its Conclusion." Ohio Historical Society 8 no. 1
(1899): 1-105.
Fogarty, Robert S. Dictionary of American Communal and
Utopian History. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press,
1980.
Robison, Elwin C. "Heavenly Aspirations and Earthly
Realities." Timeline. Dec. 2000, 2-25.
McLoughlin, William G. "Pietism and the American
Character." American Quarterly 17 no. 2 (1965):
163-186.
Sutton, Robert P. Communal Utopias and the American
Experience. Westport, CT: Praeger Publishers, 2003.
Nordhoff, Charles. The Communtstic Societies of The United
States: From Personal Visit and Obsm,ation. New York:
Hillary House Publishes, Ltd., 1961.
Thies, Clifford E "The Success of American Con munes."
Southern Economic Journal 67 no. 1 (2000): 186-199.
Endnotes
I Elwin C. Robison, "Heave fly Aspirations and Earthly Realities,"
Timdine, Dec. 2000, 2.
2 Clifford EThies, "The Success of American Conm3unes," Southern
EconomicJourna!67 no. 1 (2080): 186.
3 Robison. 2.
4 Donald )umbaugh, "Work and Hope: The Spirituality of the Radical
Pietist Goirm3m itarians," Church History, 39 no. i (1970): 7879.
5 William G. McLougblh , "Pietism nd the American Character,"
American Quarterly 17 no. 2 (1965): 163.
¢" Robert P. Sutton, Communal Utopias and the American D,perience
(Westport, CT: Praeger Publishers, 2003), 49.
7 Ibid•
B Robert S. Fogarty Dictionao; of American Communa! and Utopian Histoly
(Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1980), 14 !5.
Sutton, 49.
0 E.O. Randall, "The Separatist Society of Zoar: An Experiment in
CommuI ism-From its Commencement to its Conclusion," Ohio
Historical Society, 8 no. 1 (1899): 13-14.
11 Charles Nordhoff, The Communisti," Societies o[The United
States: From Personal Visfl and Obselvation (New York: Hi!lary House
Publishes, Ltd., 1961), 101.
i. Sutton, 49.
3 Robison, 16.
14 Sutton, 51.


Hartje Paper: The Society of Separatists at Zoar: Demonstrating the American Idealism of a Commune

Matthews, Adam

A Heretical Economy: The Economic Incentives for Heresy in the Languedoc

Wiesehan, Amanda

Vol. XXXVI, Spring 2007 o 5
An American Servant:
Portrait of a Man from the Era
of the American Revolution
Amanda Wiesehan
"He had examined with great caution; he deliberated with calmness and
discretion; and, when he decided, it was done for the best of reasons...few men, of any
age, ever possessed more entirely the confidence of their fellow citizens, than Roger
Sherman; and few men ever improved it for the general good with a more uniform
approbation of their fellow men."1 This poignant statement describes Roger Sherman
extremely well, and captures the essence of the American servant as one who works
hard for the betterment of all. When his numerous accomplishments and activities are
examined and added to the fact that he was the only individual to sign the colonial
Dedaration of Rights, the Declaration of Independence, the Articles of Confederation,
and the United States Constitution, there can be no doubt that Roger Sherman was
truly an American servant.
Born April 19, 1721, Roger Sherman was a quiet, self-taught Connecticut man
who got his first taste of public life at the age of 33 when he was elected to the
Connecticut General Assembly as the Representative from New Milford in 1755. He
served a total of five years (1755, 1757-1761) in the Connecticut General Assembly,
which gave him invaluable experience that he would take to the State Legislature three
years later. There he served as the Representative from New Haven from 1764-1766.
After holding these "preparatory" positions, where he no doubt learned the importance
of compromise and the needs of the citizens of Connecticut, Sherman took a break
from making law as he received an app,gintment as the Judge of the Superior Court of
Connecticut, a position he would hold from May of 1766 to 1789.
His next encounter with the political arena presented a far greater challenge, a
challenge that would draw upon the skills he had perfected in his first positions as a
member of the legislative body of his colony. In 1774, Sherman was named a member
to the first Continental Congress, where he presented himself on the first day the body
met. There, Sherman would ultimately deny the supremacy of Parliament and sign
the Association Agreement.2 This agreement established a total boycott through the
means of non-importation, non-exportation, and non-consumption accords? These
seemingly simple acts show that Mr. Sherman was in favor of an American nation,
a nation with a government that valued the individual spirit and gave the people the
power to regulate those who possessed the power over them.
The following year he returned as a member of the Second Continental Congress
where he served in several vital capacities. First, he was a member of the Board of
War and Ordinance, which oversaw the needs of the newly formed Continental Army.
6 • The Wittenberg History Journal
Even more importantly, however, Roger Sherman was one of five delegates who
served on the Committee to write the Declaration of Independence, the document that
officially created the new nation. In the following years, he would also serve on the
committee that wrote the Articles of Confederation, America's first government.
Roger Sherman's service as a delegate to the Constitutional Convention is
perhaps what he is most well-known for. One could argue, in fact, that he saved
the nation by proposing and promoting what wouid become known as the Great
Compromise of the Constitutional Convention. Many long days were spent debating
the issue of representation in the new Congress, and without his compromise, it may
be very likely that the Constitution and the United States would not exist today,
because without a compromise, no agreement would have been reached, no new
government would have been formed, and the nation would have crumbled.
As a fitting tribute to his efforts, Roger Sherman was elected to the first House of
Representatives in 1789 and became a Senator in 1791, where he assisted with the Bill
of Rights, a document designed to keep the government from infringing on the rights
of the people. He was a public servant to the end, dying in 1793 at the age of seventy-
two while still holding public office?
This is what makes Roger Sherman the true American servant. He constantly
worked toward creating a better government and a better nation that would serve his
fellow citizens. Throughout his work as a public servant he gained the respect of his
colleagues, without which his proposals would have had held little weight. He never
asked for much recognition, he simply wanted the satisfaction of knowing that he
had a part in creating a government that would truly serve the needs of the people it
governed.
Bibliography
Bailyn, Bernard. The Debate on the Constitution: Part One. New York: Literary Classics of the
United States, Inc., 1993.
Barthelmas, Della Gray. The Signers of the Declaration of Independence: A
Biographical and Genealogical Reference. Jefferson: McFarland & Company, 1997.
Dwight, N. Signers of the Declaration of Independence. New York: A.S. Barnes &
Company, 1895.
Online, http:/!www.u+history.com/pages/h650.html, January 30, 2007.
Endnotes
N Dwight, Signers of the Declaration of Independence (New York: A.S. Barnes & Company, 1895), 80.
2 Bernard BaiIyn, The Debate on the Constitution: Part One (New York: Literary" Classics of the United States, Inc.,
1993), 1037.
Available Online, http://www.u-s-history.com/pages/h650.htmI, January 30, 2007.
ALl of the biographical information and dates concerning Roger Sherman were obtained from t vo excellent volumes:
The Signers of the Declaration of Independence by N. Dwight and The Debate on the Constitution: Part One,
published by The Library of America.


An American Servant: Portrait of a Man from the Era of the American Revolution

Franz, Erika

Vol. XXXV, Spring 2006 • 3
Jack Johnson:
Breaking the Color Barriers of Boxing
Erika J. Franz
Imagine being arguably the best in your sport in the nation with public support.
No jerseys with the number 23, no bobble head dolls, no basebai1 cards. Training
and winning day in and day out but no one seems to notice. This is exactly how Jack
Johnson felt in beginning of the 20m century. As a major star in a desegregated sport,
Johnson suffered the prejudices of a highly segregated country.
Jack Johnson was born in 1878 and educated primarily from the streets. His
career began in amateur fighting leagues near his home in Galveston, Texas? He
quickly climbed into the top tier of fighters. Unfortunately, his country was not ready
to accept this. He was not able to have many fights in the United States and his first
Heavyweight Championship title match was held in Australia in 1908. Fueled by
prejudices, the country began the search for the "Great White Hope", any white boxer
who could defeat Johnson and reaffirm the inequality of blacks.2
The most anticipated match of Johnson's career came on July 4, 1910 in Reno,
Nevada. After the boxing community had scoured the country iooking for an
opponent they were confident could beat Johnson, they thought they had found
their man. Jim Jefferies, a former heavyweight champion himself, was dragged
out of retirement for the fight. Although the match-up was the best that the white
community could produce, there was no contest. Johnson quicldy polished off
Jefferies and destroyed any goals that whites may have had of reaffirming the idea of
inequality.3
To add to the annoyance that whites were experiencing, Johnson began to show
a controversial personality. While he was fortunate to be successful in a desegregated
sport, he was still forced to deal with the stereotypes of a segregated country. He also
dated white women, which was a social taboo to say the least at the time.4 In a time
of our nation's history that did not tolerate interracial couples, Johnson refused to
follow the social norms. He pushed the boundaries of what was accepted and created
a large amount of enemies because of it.
Johnson's outgoing personality and ability to hit on the very issues that caused
heated debate throughout the nation caused him to be easily hated by whites and
feared by blacks. As he became an easier target, whites figured out a way for the law
to stop him. The Mann Act of 1910, which was created to prohibit the transportation
of women across state boundaries for immoral purposes, was thought, by many,
to have been created with Johnson specifically in mind. He was found in violation
of the Act and forced to serve one year in jail? Jack Johnson's trouble with the law
essentially marked the end of his boxing career but not before he was able to make a
lasting impression on the country.
4 " The Wittenberg History Journal
One of the most significant ways Johnson impacted society was the symbol of
his success both in the ring and in the business world. Johnson, as one single black
man, was not the threat to the white community, but rather it was what he stood
for. He was no longer dependent on whites and, in fact, it took the whole white
community eight years to find a white boxer that could defeat Johnson. Johnson's
personality kept him from having an impact to the likes of Jackie Robinson. However,
he challenged the nation to accept desegregation and the idea that all men are created
equal. Johnson, without a doubt, helped pave the way for black athletes that came
after him. He is often overlooked as a trailblazer of desegregation in sports but that is
far from the truth. Jack Johnson is arguably one of the most influential black athletes
of the segregated era, even if there are no bobble head dolls or shiny boxing shorts
commemorating his contributions.
Works Cited
Fleischer, Nat. The Heavyweight Championship. New York, NY: Van Reese Press, 1949.
Johnson, Jack.Jack Johnson: In the Ring and Out. Chicago, IL: National Sports Publishing
Company, 1927.
Roberts, Randy. Papa Jack:Jack Johnson and the Era of White Hope. New York, NY: The Free
Press, 1983.
End Notes
1 Randy Roberts, Papa Jack:Jack Johnson and the Era of White Hope (New York, NY:
The Free Press, 1983), 6.
2 Roberts, 16-17.
3 Nat Fleischer, The Heavyweight Championship (New York, NY: Van Reese Press, 1949). 150.
4 Jack Johnson, Jack Johnson: In the Ring and Out (Chicago, IL: Nationai Sports Publishing
Company, 1927), 70-88.
s Roberts, 144.


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