Exeley Inc.

Brazier, B.A., Grad. Dip. Ed., M. Spec. Ed., Jodi

International Journal of Orientation & Mobility • Volume 1, Number 1, 200846
Defi nition of echolocation
In the Orientation and Mobility (O&M) 
profession, the ability to detect objects that 
do not produce sounds is widely referred to 
as “echolocation”. Echolocation is based on 
perceiving variations in the ambient sound 
fi eld as individuals’ move about their envi-
ronment. Although the term echolocation is 
frequently associated with the detection of 
obstacles, the auditory ability is also impor-
tant for maintaining one’s orientation in the 
environment in relation to solid architectural 
features such as walls and doors (Ashmead 
& Wall, 1999). 
The auditory perception of the spatial fea-
tures of a person’s environment can be clas-
sifi ed into two categories: (a) active echolo-
cation: the localisation of sound-producing 
objects such as pedestrians, telephones and 
vehicles (b) passive echolocation: the abil-
ity to detect and localise features of the en-
vironment that do not themselves produce 
sounds such as poles, walls, street signs and 
door openings.
Echolocation can be a very natural and 
easily understood way to perceive the en-
vironment and is simply the ability to hear 
echoes. Echoes and other sounds can con-
vey spatial information that is comparable in 
many ways to that conveyed by light. With 
echoes, a vision impaired traveller can per-
ceive very complex, detailed and specifi c 
information from distances far beyond the 
reach of the arm or long cane. Echoes make 
information available about the nature and 
arrangement of objects and environmen-
tal features such as walls, doorways, poles, 
parked vehicles, trees and many other sol-
id objects in the environment. Echoes can 
provide the vision impaired traveller with 
detailed information about the location of 
objects, their dimension and density. By un-
derstanding the interrelationships of these 
qualities of the object in the environment, a 
great deal can be perceived about the nature 
of the object or multiple objects. For exam-
ple, an object that is tall and narrow may be 
quickly recognised as a pole, or something 
The Benefi ts of Using Echolocation
to Safely Navigate Through the
Environment
Jodi Brazier
This study investigated participant use of echolocation skills. Specifi cally 
participants were asked to describe what methods they used to generate sound, and 
what echolocation assisted them to do in terms of their orientation and mobility 
(O&M). Contrary to previous research fi ndings, it was found that most participants 
preferred to use cane tapping to generate sound. Possible reasons for this fi nding 
are discussed. Participants reported that echolocation assisted them to self-orientate 
and detect, locate and differentiate between objects in the environment.
International Journal of Orientation & Mobility • Volume 1, Number 1, 2008 47
tall and very broad may register as a wall. 
Similarly, the awareness of the density of the 
object (i.e., its solidity or sparseness) adds 
considerable richness and complexity to the 
environmental information available to a 
traveller (Kish & Bleier, 2007).
Methods used for sound 
generation
Sound generation used for echoloca-
tion can be achieved through self-produced 
sounds such as the tapping of the long cane, 
mechanically or orally produced fi nger or 
tongue clicking, clapping, footsteps, chirps 
and hisses. These sounds strike an object in 
the environment, and the refl ected sounds 
can be used to determine the object’s size, 
shape and texture (Blumsack, 2003). Al-
though it appears that few studies have in-
vestigated echolocation, some authors sug-
gest that sounds produced near the ears, 
such as tongue clicking, is most effective 
for the echolocation of objects (Kish, 1995). 
Similarly, Burton (2000) and Schenkman 
and Jansson (1986) concluded that echo-
location is less effective when sounds are 
produced below the waist, for example, by 
cane tapping, compared to when sounds are 
produced above the waist such as a tongue 
click or fi nger clicking.
Benefi ts of using echolocation
The ability to use echolocation to main-
tain orientation is important for people with 
vision impairments because it can be used in 
many environments and, once developed, is 
always readily available to the person. Unlike 
electronic travel aids such as the Miniguide 
or ‘K’ Sonar, echolocation does not require 
a battery or other power source, nor does the 
technique make noises that distract the user 
or necessarily produce noise that may bring 
attention to the vision impaired traveller. 
Even for people that use guide dogs or other 
mobility aids, it is still benefi cial to for them 
to develop echolocation skills to the fullest 
extent possible to aid the comprehension of 
the path travelled. Although high frequency 
sounds such as orally produced hisses and 
clicks can, in some cases, be used to locate 
objects in the environment, excellent high 
frequency hearing is not essential for all 
aspects of echolocation (Carlson-Smith & 
Wiener, 1996).
Factors that affect echolocation
Kish and Bleier (2007) found that the dis-
tance and detail that echoes can carry depend 
largely upon the following factors:
(1)  Quality of echo signal: Signals produced 
deliberately by the traveller are usually 
more effective for echolocating rather 
than random sounds emitted from the 
environment. Signals produced near the 
ears typically create clearer echoes, be-
cause echoes return most of their energy 
to the origin of their signal. Echoes from 
tongue clicks are easier to interpret than 
those from cane taps or footsteps; 
(2)  Surface characteristics: Objects near the 
head are typically easier to detect than 
those below the waist. Large objects can 
camoufl age or overshadow small ob-
jects that are near them; 
(3)  Ambient noise: Background or ambient 
noise may produce useful echoes, but it 
generally masks or absorbs echoes, be-
cause echoes are relatively quiet. The 
more ambient noise, the more diffi cult it 
is to perceive echoes;
International Journal of Orientation & Mobility • Volume 1, Number 1, 200848
(4)  Quality of hearing: Often, functional 
hearing offers the highest potential for 
using echoes effectively;
(5)  Degree of vigilance: This is possibly the 
most important factor. Because there are 
many cues that must be analysed and in-
tegrated for successful navigation, con-
centration is often divided among many 
elements. Since echo information is rel-
atively subtle, it requires at least a mod-
erate degree of continued concentration 
for effective use. It is also possible that 
extended learning experiences may en-
able a person to selectively perceive rel-
evant echoes.
What helps or hinders 
echolocation?
(1) Too much guided travel will impede the 
development of echolocation over the 
long term. If guided, then echoes have 
no functional signifi cance;
(2) Rain does not necessarily interfere with 
echolocation, but it can be quite distract-
ing and confusing for the traveller;
(3) The perception of echoes may be slight-
ly improved in cold weather or after 
rain. Sound waves tend to travel more 
effectively in cold air, and wet objects 
tend to refl ect more sound energy;
(4) Strong winds or noise will hamper echo-
location. A strong echo signal is neces-
sary for good perception under these 
conditions;
(5) Anything that covers or shadows the 
ears such as umbrellas, hats, or hood-
ed jackets can strongly interfere with 
echolocation; 
(6) Age factors: key echolocation skills tend 
to increase with age and experience;
(7) Residual vision: clients with light per-
ception or visual memories often con-
fuse echo images with visual images. 
They appear to “see” what they hear. 
The brain can interpret echo sensation 
in a visual reference, which can cause 
confusion between the sensory channels 
(Kish & Bleier, 2007).
Methodology
Ten clients of Guide Dogs NSW/ACT 
who were regular known users of echoloca-
tion were invited to participate in this study. 
Half of this group was congenitally blind and 
participants ranged in age from 19 years to 
65 years. Six of the participants were male 
and four were female. Nine participants had 
been using echolocation for more than fi ve 
years while one participant had been us-
ing echolocation for four years. The author 
gathered information from eight participants 
in a face-to-face interview, while two par-
ticipants were interviewed by telephone. 
Questions were asked of each participant 
that included: (a) Do you use echolocation 
in your everyday travels? If so, in what form 
does echolocation take for you? (b) What 
does echolocation assists you to do?
Results
Participants were asked to comment on 
their methods used for sound generation. 
The responses are detailed in Table 1.
Participants were asked to comment on 
what echolocation assisted them to do as re-
ported in Table 2.
Discussion
It is evident that echolocation is a highly 
useful skill that was used effectively by the 
International Journal of Orientation & Mobility • Volume 1, Number 1, 2008 49
10 participants. Echolocation enabled par-
ticipants to detect, locate, avoid and negoti-
ate around objects in the environment. For 
some participants, echolocation also pro-
vided a method to shoreline and maintain 
straight line travel. 
All participants reported that they natu-
rally acquired the skill of echolocation and 
that it was not taught to them. The major-
ity of participants also reported that they 
used echolocation almost subconsciously 
to enhance their mobility. One participant 
commented that she did not realise how of-
ten she used the technique until she thought 
about it. Another participant stated that he 
would fi nd it diffi cult to maintain orientation 
without using echolocation.
This study’s fi nding’s are in contrast to 
those reported by Burton (2000), Blumsack 
(2003) and Schenkman and Jansson (1986). 
Participants reported that instead of prefer-
ring to generate sound from above the waist 
by using, for example, hand clapping, the 
majority of participants described cane tap-
ping as the most preferred method of sound 
generation. Participants provided two main 
reasons why they preferred the cane tap 
method to generate sound. First, because it 
provided accurate and dependable informa-
tion about their environment in additional 
to the information already provided through 
ambient sounds. Second, the cane tapping 
method was a behaviour that the participants 
felt would be viewed by the public as natural 
and ordinary, reducing the risk of unwanted 
attention.
Although this study did not investigate 
the reasons why participants wanted to re-
duce the risk of unwanted attention, it might 
be that participants wanted to remain anony-
mous by blending into the crowd, felt em-
barrassed to emit sounds from less subtle 
sources such as their voice or hand clapping, 
or felt vulnerable of being harmed. It might 
Table 1.  Methods used by participants to generate sound.
Cane Tapping Tongue Clicks Finger Clicks
Hand 
Clapping Footsteps
Mouth 
Sounds Voice
Client 1 9
Client 2 9
Client 3 9 9 9
Client 4 9 9 9 9
Client 5 9
Client 6 9 9 9
Client 7 9
Client 8 9
Client 9 9
Client 10 9
TOTAL 7 3 3 1 1 1 1
International Journal of Orientation & Mobility • Volume 1, Number 1, 200850
be then, motivated by the desire to reduce 
the risk of unwanted attention, that cane tap-
ping was effective because it was performed 
with greater intensity, creating an echo that 
could be more easily perceived. 
Echolocation appears to be an effective 
skill to assist in O&M. When training cli-
ents to use echolocation, it seems important 
to consider individual preferences for the 
methods used to generate sound. It cannot be 
taken for granted that the ‘above the waist’ 
sound generation methods such as tongue or 
fi nger clicks will be preferred or even use-
ful to all clients. Rather, O&M instructors, 
service providers and researchers need to 
investigate other ‘below the waist’ methods 
that are subtle and/or explicit to meet the cli-
ent’s needs, preferences and expectations. 
Table 2. Orientation skills achieved using echolocation.
CLIENT 1 • Locate bus shelters
• Locate tunnels
• Locate awnings
• Detect solid objects up ahead e.g. a car/truck 
CLIENT 2 • Identify underground areas e.g. tunnels and underneath a staircase
• Detect environmental changes e.g. from a brick wall to open space
CLIENT 3 • Locate the mailbox
• Detect objects up ahead, example: cars obstructing footpath/driveways
• Identify underground tunnels
• Avoid pedestrians
• Locate bus shelters
• Locate different shops e.g. the chemist
• Differentiate between a closed and open door
CLIENT 4 • Negotiate through narrow spaces
• Locate corners, examples: within an educational setting or inside the home
• Detect obstacles/pedestrians 
• Negotiate around pillars
• Detect open spaces
CLIENT 5 • Detect walls
• Detect open spaces e.g. within a University campus
CLIENT 6 • Follow shorelines
• Negotiation around poles and other obstacles
• Detect solid objects in front
• Detect doorways and differences between closed/open doors
CLIENT 7 • Negotiation around large obstacles on the path of travel e.g. a furniture van
CLIENT 8 • Negotiate crowded areas e.g. on city streets
• Locate underground tunnels
• Maintain straight line travel and follow a physical shoreline
CLIENT 9 • Negotiate around obstacles in front e.g. parked cars, trees and poles
• Detect walls
• Assist to turn corners
• Fast and smooth mobility
• Locate entrances to buildings e.g. doorways
• Shoreline walls without using the long cane
CLIENT 10 • Maintain straight line of travel
• Negotiate around obstacles in the environment
• Assist to turn corners
• Awareness of the direction needed to travel
International Journal of Orientation & Mobility • Volume 1, Number 1, 2008 51
References
Ashmead, D. H., & Wall, R. S. (1999). Audi-
tory perception of walls via sprectral vari-
ations in the ambient sound fi eld. Journal 
of Rehabilitation Research and Develop-
ment, 36(4), 313-322.
Blumsack, J. (2003). Audiological assess-
ment, rehabilitation, and spatial hearing 
considerations associated with visual im-
pairment in adults: An overview. Ameri-
can Journal of Audiology, 12, 76-83
Burton, G. (2000). The role of the sound of 
tapping for nonvisual judgment of gap 
crossability. Journal of Experimental 
Psychology: Human Perception and Per-
formance, 26, 900-916. 
Carlson-Smith, C., & Wiener, W. R. (1996). 
The auditory skills necessary for echo-
location: A new explanation. Journal of 
Vision Impairment and Blindness, 90(1), 
21-35.
 Kish, D. (1995). Echolocation: How hu-
mans can “see” without sight. Retrieved 
July 30, 2007 from http://www.worldac-
cessfortheblind.org/echolocationreview.
rtf 
Kish, D., & Bleier, H. (n.d). Echolocation: 
What it is, and how it can be taught and 
learned. Retrieved August 12, 2007 from 
http://www.worldaccessfortheblind.org/
docs/echolocationtrainingguide.pdf
Schenkman, B. N., & Jansson, G. (1986). 
The detection and localisation of objects 
by the blind with the aid of long-cane tap-
ping sounds. Human Factors, 28, 607-
618.
Jodi Brazier, B.A., Grad. Dip. Ed., M. Spec. Ed., 
(Sensory Disability), O&M instructor, Guide Dogs 
NSW/ACT, Suite 3, 149 Hawkesbury Road, Westmead, 
NSW 2145, Australia; e-mail: <jbrazier@guidedogs.
com.au>.


The Benefits of Using Echolocation to Safely Navigate Through the Environment

Joyce, Cert. Dog Handler, Dip. O&M, Ray

International Journal of Orientation & Mobility • Volume 1, Number 1, 200866
The Three Most Important Factors 
Every Orientation and Mobility 
Instructor Needs to Know when 
Working with Guide Dogs
Ray Joyce
The author discusses three important factors that need to be considered by Orientation 
& Mobility (O&M) instructors when working with clients that are guide dog users. 
These include: that the work of a guide dog can be infl uenced by the presence of 
the O&M instructor during training; the signifi cance of straight line travel; and 
the importance of using such O&M techniques as guiding, directional cues and 
landmarks.
Working with clients who are guide dog 
users can be daunting for inexperienced 
Orientation & Mobility (O&M) instructors. 
Similarly, experienced instructors might feel 
capable when working with clients less con-
fi dent in their O&M skills, though less ca-
pable when working with guide dog clients 
who are often highly skilled and confi dent 
in O&M. It is important that instructors re-
main mindful that how the training session 
is conducted will have either a positive or 
negative effect on the guide dog and guide 
dog handler “unit”.
Tips for working successfully with 
the guide dog unit
To assist in the reduction of guide dog dis-
traction during a training session, it is help-
ful to keep client instruction to a minimum. 
To achieve this, the majority of instruction 
can take place prior to and after the training 
session. Route planning can also occur prior 
to the fi rst training session. For example, 
the instructor and client can plan the route 
together in a relaxed environment and then 
while the client is being guided. It is neces-
sary when planning the route to investigate 
and become familiar with the overall struc-
ture of the route, followed by more intricate 
familiarity with each route segment. The in-
structor must also consider the time of day 
the client is likely to travel as this will be 
a decisive factor in deciding the direction 
of the fi nal route. For example, it might be 
best to avoid a crowded school area at the 
conclusion of a school day or avoid an area 
where no footpath is available. Planning the 
route with the client prior to training will 
have the positive effects of preventing guide 
dog boredom and confusion since it is clear 
from the outset, the route the dog is required 
to learn. It is imperative to teach the correct 
route in the fi rst instance, as the dog has an 
able memory and will memorise most of-
ten that which is fi rst taught. It is also im-
portant to remember, that unlike long cane 
work, the dog works at a much quicker pace, 
International Journal of Orientation & Mobility • Volume 1, Number 1, 2008 67
and therefore the instructor must anticipate 
the training environment more quickly. Re-
duced instruction will also assist the unit to 
maintain focus and concentration. Further, 
the continuity of work will mirror the actual 
work patterns of the guide dog unit, provid-
ing the handler with a more accurate way 
of recognising time versus distance com-
parisons on the new route. If a longer route 
that also includes public transport is to be 
learned, then the unit may be taught sections 
of the route in any order and the dog will put 
it together.
During the training session, the guide dog 
might be infl uenced by the position of the 
O&M instructor. For example, if the instruc-
tor is walking to the right of the handler, the 
dog might veer to the right, or if the instruc-
tor walks beside the dog to the left, the dog 
might veer to the left. During the lesson, it 
is preferable that the instructor maintain a 
position behind and slightly to the right of 
the working guide dog unit. This should be 
close enough that instruction or support can 
be given, but out of the dog’s line of sight 
and far enough away so as not to distract 
the dog or inhibit the client’s movements. 
Where the positioning might change is when 
the instructor wants to infl uence the unit to 
move in a particular direction by using their 
own body position. The instructor could also 
walk several paces behind the unit after brief 
instructions have been given. The instructor 
should also keep movements slow and pre-
dictable, as fast, loud and jerky movements 
can distract the dog. 
In overwhelmingly complex environ-
ments such as crowded department stores, 
the guide dog will sometimes exhibit signs 
of tension or stress by tightening its ears 
against its head or dropping its tail. Such 
signs indicate that the unit is probably 
experiencing diffi culty. In such instances the 
“follow” command can be used. It is recom-
mended that at this time, the unit is stopped 
and the “follow” procedure is explained to 
the handler. The instructor can then walk ap-
proximately two meters in front of the unit 
so that the handler can command the dog to 
“follow” the instructor. 
Certain sounds can distract the dog be-
cause of its high-frequency hearing ability. 
For instance, the rustling of plastic or paper 
bags is distracting, as the dog might have 
received food rewards from similar sounds. 
These sounds can take the dog’s attention 
away from its work, as Labradors are often 
food-focused. Noisy shoes can also distract 
the dog.
An instructor should not command, speak 
to, feed or control a guide dog when it is be-
ing worked by its handler. This should be 
the sole responsibility of the handler. On oc-
casions the instructor might be requested to 
hold the leash while the handler engages in 
another activity. This is usually acceptable 
as long as the handler commands the dog 
to sit and stay, and the instructor holds the 
leash short up until the handler returns.
Signifi cance of straight line travel
Generally guide dog units work from 
kerb to kerb and all major changes of direc-
tion are completed from either the down or 
up kerbs. As a part of this expectation, guide 
dogs are also encouraged to go around grass 
verges rather than over them. This will have 
the added advantage of avoiding plant mat-
ter that might lodge into the dog’s paws. An 
O&M instructor should provide orientation 
to a guide dog handler in terms of straight 
lines. Initially, guiding the client can be 
used to provide straight line orientation. 
International Journal of Orientation & Mobility • Volume 1, Number 1, 200868
For instance, when it is necessary to turn at 
a kerb, turn on the spot. The handler might 
then be ready to work the guide dog over 
the same route with verbal support from the 
instructor. The instructor can use words like 
“stop”, “go”, “over” (move to the left), “in” 
(move to the right) and “back turn” (turn 
around and go back). The fi nal training stage 
is when the handler can meet the instructor 
at the end of the route unassisted.
Guide dogs require footpaths, kerbs, 
walls, fences, roads, corridors and hallways 
to assist them to remain on route. Open spac-
es are not helpful because there is nothing 
for the dog to follow. A guide dog’s detail 
vision is relatively short at approximately 
30 meters, which does not allow the dog to 
register objects in the distance unless they 
are moving.
Using O&M techniques
The instructor’s existing knowledge 
of guiding techniques will help minimise 
confusion if the client is fi nding the train-
ing session challenging. Guiding might also 
be used to direct the unit along a preferred 
path, with the guide dog always remaining 
on the drop side such as when on a railway 
platform. Guiding can be used to position a 
handler in a specifi c direction if the unit is 
not facing the direction objective, or to as-
sist the unit repeat a certain part of the route 
that requires improvement. Guiding is also 
benefi cial at the commencement of train-
ing to assist the unit’s awareness of stairs or 
railway platforms. Importantly, the instruc-
tor should look ahead and if necessary stop 
the unit to explain a change in route before 
it is reached. 
Other useful O&M strategies to incorpo-
rate into unit training are the clock face and 
distance discrimination. The clock face ap-
proach can be used to describe to the client 
the positioning of objects, or the direction 
in which the unit should be positioned. For 
instance, the bank is located in front of us 
at 12 o’clock, while the café is on our right 
at 3 o’clock. Distances can be described in 
terms of the number of steps to climb, the 
number of blocks to walk, the number of 
lighted intersections or the number of sloped 
driveways.
A further consideration during unit train-
ing is that different sides of the road can 
have qualities that might be of value or a 
hindrance to a client. The instructor and cli-
ent need to investigate whether or not shad-
ows are a distraction or whether the pave-
ment is too hot for the dog. The client may 
have a preference for one side of the road or 
the other. 
Instructions can be provided to a guide 
dog client in a similar way to an O&M cli-
ent. For example, it is acceptable to instruct 
a client to stop, turn left or right, or back. If a 
discussion needs to occur during training, it 
is also acceptable to suggest that the handler 
command the dog to sit. If a more lengthy 
discussion is required, a relaxing café envi-
ronment is highly benefi cial providing a rest 
for both the dog and handler. Such a relaxed 
environment allows the client time to fully 
process and clarify instruction. Clear and 
concise instructions will ensure that the con-
tinuity of work is maintained.
It is important to remember that the han-
dler is responsible for the dog, its behaviour 
and mistakes, which should not be confused 
with route instructions. The handler is ex-
pected to know what to do if a mistake has 
occurred. If a problem arises with the dog, 
simply mention it to the handler. 
International Journal of Orientation & Mobility • Volume 1, Number 1, 2008 69
If the unit is veering off track, the unit 
must be stopped, the error explained, the unit 
repositioned, then recommenced. It is rec-
ommended that training occur on one small 
route segment at a time that is repeated un-
til learnt before moving onto the next route 
segment. This training approach assists to 
maintain the confi dence and motivation of 
the unit as it is much easier to learn small 
route segments at one time.
Summary
Pre-session:
(a) Discuss the proposed route with the cli-
ent. Determine the client’s residual vi-
sion, existing knowledge of the route 
and the intended frequency of travel on 
the route. 
(b) If possible talk to a guide dog instruc-
tor who has knowledge of the client to 
provide background information on the 
perceived capabilities of the unit.
(c) Ensure the client is aware of the ba-
sic orientation points on route (in both 
directions).
During the session:
(a) On the initial training session, travel the 
route only with the client, then guide the 
client with the dog. In the following ses-
sion commence the client working the 
dog.
(b) Maintain correct instructor positioning 
throughout lesson. 
(c) Keep instruction to a minimum.
Post-session:
(a) Monitor the client’s ability to complete 
the route on an independent basis. Suc-
cess might occur on the fi rst session but 
may require one or two more sessions in 
some cases.
Ray Joyce, Cert. Dog Handler, Dip. O&M, Princi-
pal O&M instructor (Guide Dogs), Guide Dogs NSW/
ACT, 2-4 Thomas Street, Chatwood, NSW 2067, Aus-
tralia; e-mail: <rjoyce@guidedogs.com.au>.


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