Exeley Inc.

Gallimore, Ph.D., Desirée

Steer, Ph.D., Mike

International Journal of Orientation & Mobility • Volume 5, Number 1, 20126
Editorial
We join Maryanne Diamond in welcoming you to IJOM’s fifth volume. We are particularly 
pleased as the IJOM website has recently been revised and volumes of IJOM can be either 
downloaded or hard copies ordered at http://www.ijorientationandmobility.com 
This volume includes a diverse range of topics that considers training issues, client 
responsibility, professional training, innovative aids, and client perception of using aids. 
Specifically, the lead article by Diamond, the immediate past President of the World Blind 
Union (WBU), summarises statistics about vision impairment, and discusses some of the 
projects and resources available that might enable a greater number of people with vision 
impairment to access environments and transport systems. 
Accessibility remains a major focus of O&M, and Sauerburger, Bourquin, and Sauerburger 
investigate the effectiveness of warning signage to assist people who are deaf-blind conduct 
safer street crossing. Their results have implications for O&M specialist education that affect 
consumers, families, agencies, and schools. It is important to note that this study includes the 
term ‘deaf-blind’ rather than ‘deafblind’. ‘Deafblind’ is the term adopted by the Australian 
Deafblind Council and by the national organisation ‘Sense’ in the United Kingdom. Much of 
the international literature also uses the term deafblind, the rationale being that the condition 
is simply not a combination of Deafness and Blindness, but a disability in its own right. 
However, IJOM respects the decision by the American Association of the Deaf-Blind to 
continue using the hyphenated term “deaf-blind” and acknowledges that philosophical 
variation and preference will occasionally occur with regard to terminology. In this and 
similar instances, the author’s preferred terminology will be used.  
Client safety is also considered by Munro and Stafford. A quandary often experienced 
by instructors-in-training and O&M specialists in the early phases of their career is that of 
judging suitable training distances between instructor and client. To aid this process, the 
authors investigate the use of an Audio-link between the instructor and client during training.
Perla’s article challenges the O&M specialist to reflect on the amount of age-appropriate 
choice, control, and ownership our young clients have in their O&M training programs. Perla 
suggests providing three types of choice, and perceiving O&M training as a partnership, all 
of which can influence and develop effective O&M skills.
Berndtsson and Sunneson describe the trial of an echolocation training course for 
students participating in a university special education degree. It is widely recognised by 
O&M professionals that echolocation is an important tool of which clients should be aware 
and have the choice to learn. However, currently echolocation is not widely included in 
university training for instructors-in-training.
Willins describes the adaption of a long cane handle named the ‘Spring Loaded “Willins” 
cane’ that reduces jarring. Willins describes the reasons for and processes in its development, 
International Journal of Orientation & Mobility • Volume 5, Number 1, 2012 7
a ‘recipe’ to reproduce the cane as well as a case study where the cane was particularly 
useful.
Together with the consideration of client technical requirements, Wah Wan considers the 
importance of cultural requirements when delivering O&M services to some people from 
Chinese backgrounds. Wah Wan considers some of the challenges that exist for this cultural 
group, and discusses the need for culturally competent O&M specialists.
The client perspective is also considered by Hogan who discusses her experiences as 
an O&M instructor with vision impairment, and the embarrassment experienced by some 
clients when presented with a mobility aid. She suggests the potential of assertiveness 
training to assist clients reduce their level of embarrassment. 
It is of great importance that O&M specialists share their experiences, observations, 
research, and innovations via publication. Only through this process can O&M specialists 
and clients benefit world-wide from all the tremendous O&M work and experience that has 
accrued. The most frequent comment made to the editors of IJOM by O&M specialists is 
that despite their innovations, experience, and research, they lack the confidence to publish 
because they believe their writing skills are wanting. However, we reiterate that the necessary 
technical writing assistance is provided by our editorial and peer review panels, and editors. 
Article content is the priority and is in our opinion the core of research or practice reports. 
Please keep your submissions coming.
Desirée Gallimore Ph.D. & Mike Steer Ph.D. 


Editorial

Joyce, Cert. Guide Dog Training, Dip. O&M, Ray

International Journal of Orientation & Mobility • Volume 5, Number 1, 2012 59
This publication is a collection of brief experiential and ‘remarkably honest’ stories of 
the author’s life and ‘antics’ as a guide dog instructor over 48.5 years. The book is written 
with a clarity enabling the reader to visualise each situation. The author shares with the 
reader many experiences as a guide dog instructor whilst observing trainees with vision 
impairment completing their exercises. There is also a selection of coloured and black and 
white photographs of the training centres, groups of trainees, guide dogs, and the author 
which enhance the stories. The sections include:
Preface:   The misconception the public has of the guide dog and the explanation of the 
significant role the handler plays in the success of the team.
Section 1.   In search of passion: The influences which led the author to apply for a guide 
dog instructor cadetship in 1959.
Section 2.   In the beginning: Challenges of early training experiences at the training centre, 
Exeter, Devon, UK.
Section 3.  Film star:  The author’s role in a promotional guide dog/trainer movie and some 
of the antics that ensued.
Section 4.   Reflex: Some unorthodox guiding.
Section 5.   Unique: Guide dog “Shandy” the boxer stole a bun while working.
Section 6.  Foresight:  Outsmarting a police dog.
Section 7.   Temptation: A dog returning a biscuit to its mistress (an unlikely story?)
Section 8.   Cruel to be kind: A person giving guide dog “Jess” chocolate that contributed 
to her death.
Section 9.   Lost: A class of new guide users working in heavy fog.
Section 10.  And found: A guide dog sensing danger ‘saves’ the handler.
Section 11. Fantasy:  A chance meeting with the actress Susannah York.
Section 12.  Miracles: The explanation of guide dog client training techniques as well as a 
scenario describing the negative effect of a person with congenital blindness regaining sight. 
Section 13.  Role-play: The experience of a continual two-week blindfold test and its impact 
on the public and author’s family.
Blind Courage: Reflections of a 
Guide Dog Instructor in England, 
Australia, and New Zealand
ISBN: 978-0-473-20177-7
Brian Peel (2012). The Copy Press.
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International Journal of Orientation & Mobility • Volume 5, Number 1, 201260
Section 14.  Insight: Techniques used to train clients with dogs.
Section 15.  No bloody good: When instructors visit remote parts of Australia they are 
expected to ‘go with the flow’ to a large extent. This chapter describes vividly the environment 
of a mining town in which the instructor found himself.
Section 16. Redundant: Australian outback conditions are described where guide dogs may 
be required to work. The author explains the significance of the city of Perth, Australia as 
the origin of the guide dog organisation in Australia. Aspects of client assessment for a 
guide dog are also explained. 
Section 17.  Perception: A dog’s response to traffic lights.
Section 18. Poaching:  The strip club operator who was blind.
Section 19. Skipper:  A person with vision impairment sailing; and the grief guide dog users 
experience at the death of their guide dog.
Section 20. Free spirit: Horse whisperer takes a guide dog on his own terms.
Section 21. Trust me:  When the respect and bond is strong the dog can still work after the 
master has had a stroke.
Section 22. The making of a guide dog: The characteristics a variety of dog breeds and their 
value as a guide dog including breeding, puppy walking processes, and responsibilities.
Epilogue. The career path of the author.
The book contains some important historical facts about guide dog breeding, matching, 
and guide dog organisations. As a minor point, the book title Blind Courage seems misleading 
because at the completion of guide dog training clients have developed trust in their dog 
so ‘courage’ is usually not an issue. Perhaps the book’s greatest strength is its honesty with 
the author emphasising the importance of flexibility when working with a guide dog and 
handler. For this the author should be congratulated.
Ray Joyce, Cert. Guide Dog Training, Dip. O&M, Principal O&M instructor (Guide Dogs), Guide Dogs NSW/
ACT, 2-4 Thomas Street, Chatswood, NSW 2067, Australia; e-mail: <rjoyce@guidedog.com.au>.


Blind Courage: Reflections of a Guide Dog Instructor in England, Australia, and New Zealand

Munro, M. Ed., TVI, Michael

Stafford, M.Ed., COMS, Barry H.

Transforming Training in Orientation and Mobility: Examining the Effect Using an Audio-Link on the Distance Between Trainer and Trainee

Zucchetti, Giulia

Giannotta, Fabrizia

Rabaglietti, Emanuela

Online and Offline Friendship Among Italian Adolescent Girls Following a Non-Traditional School Track

Willins, B.A., Karyn

The Spring Loaded &ldquo;Willins&rdquo; Cane

Morgan, B.A., Grad. Dip. O&M, M. Teaching (Primary), Dip. Management, Rachel

International Journal of Orientation & Mobility • Volume 5, Number 1, 201256
I began reading ‘The Multisensory Handbook’ whilst travelling to a rural school to 
visit three children who were blind who each have significant cognitive disabilities.   For 
many years I have been working with these children, their families, teachers and the 
school community to increase their orientation and mobility (O&M) skills.  Through this 
collaboration we have been able to develop a joint program to develop their mobility, 
cognitive, and communication skills.  With this program in mind, it was with interest that I 
skimmed through this book and noted two things – the emphasis on a ‘unified’ approach to 
supporting people with challenging sensory needs and the importance of fully understanding 
sensory development when designing appropriate intervention strategies.  It is these two 
points that make this book valuable reading for all professionals supporting people with 
sensory impairments.
This book is divided into two sections.  The first section focuses on understanding sensory 
development and defining multisensory stimulation.  The second section explores the unified 
approach to assessment and designing appropriate environments.
In the first couple of chapters there is an overview of the important concepts used in the 
book and a brief introduction to the anatomy and physiological aspects of human sense 
development.  By having an understanding of the concepts that underpin sensory stimulation, 
such as sense organs, perception, sensory processing, sensory thresholds, and multisensory 
stimulation, it is easier to understand how our senses link our brains to our environment.  As 
an Orientation and Mobility instructor the quote ‘…the more multisensory the stimulation, 
the more likely it will be perceived in more accurate, valid and dependable ways’ (p. 7) 
challenged me to look at the emphasis I place on the different forms of sensory information 
available to the children who are blind or have low vision, forcing me to ask whether or not 
I place too much emphasis on the senses that are dominant for me, in vision and hearing.
The next few chapters look at the idea of pleasurable sensory experiences and how 
designing multisensory programs can lead to relevant and meaningful success for participants, 
working towards changing a situation of learned helplessness to learned optimism.  The 
Book Review by an O&M specialist
The Multisensory Handbook: 
A Guide for Children and 
Adults with Sensory Learning 
Disabilities
ISBN: 978-0-415-59754-8
Paul Pagliano (2012). Routledge.
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International Journal of Orientation & Mobility • Volume 5, Number 1, 2012 57
concept of predictive coding is defined as the brain using prediction and anticipation to 
interpret the sensory information coming in and therefore guiding perception of that sensory 
experience.  This chapter provides the basis for understanding that development of sense 
learning and therefore understanding sense-learning difficulties.
Chapter 6 provides an interesting breakdown of various considerations for the design of a 
multisensory space.  This includes describing 17 different multisensory ‘design prototypes’. 
Whilst reading I was able to recognise many of these designs that are commonly used in 
specialist schools, including the ‘white’ room, wet areas, and social areas.  This section 
clarifies many of the ideas behind the use and design of a multisensory environment and 
provides any practitioner with much food for thought. 
The second part to the book, titled ‘A unified approach,’ focuses on how the ‘participant, 
the practitioner, and the environment are all indispensable’ (p.79) and stresses the need for 
all to work together, with the specialisations of the practitioners being secondary to the 
participant’s multisensory development.
In these chapters the author provides detail on how to conduct a multisensory assessment, 
with templates to guide practitioners through the assessment of five key multisensory areas 
– the participants well-being, stereotypy, engagement, interoception, and exteroception. 
From an orientation and mobility practitioner perspective, I feel these templates provide 
appropriate information to guide me through the process as well as highlighting the need to 
assess using various approaches, in a variety of settings and including all key stakeholders.
The final few chapters look at the considerations that need to be addressed before starting 
the process of designing a multisensory environment.  After the detailed templates in the 
previous assessment chapter, I was looking for further step-by-step information on designing 
a multisensory environment but for good reasons the author only provides examples and 
suggestions. He reminds us that each participant is an individual, therefore it is not possible 
to provide specific ‘how to’ recipes for practitioners to follow.
Throughout the book the author employs a particularly useful strategy of reviewing and 
linking ideas from previous chapters with new information in subsequent chapters.  This 
spiralling of information helps the reader review the important concepts and provides links 
to new the concepts. This spiralling of information throughout the book echoes the purpose 
of the book, that as practitioners we need to design appropriate programs to build on new 
experiences, linking new information with a spiralling effect to aid sense learning.
Whilst not the major focus of the book, Chapter 7 engages in an intriguing discussion about 
‘establishing a caring relationship’.  It challenges any practitioner to give much thought to 
the relationships we establish with the participants we work with.  The author reminds us that 
this relationship requires a genuine interest, an open mind and a recognition of assumptions 
we may hold about our clients.  It is particularly pleasing to see this addressed in a book 
written for practitioners.  Often the philosophical reasons for doing what we do in a ‘caring’ 
profession are not written about. By including this chapter the author is acknowledging that 
not everyone in a ‘caring’ profession demonstrates high expectations for their client group 
they work with nor do they honestly believe that this group are capable of learning or have 
International Journal of Orientation & Mobility • Volume 5, Number 1, 201258
the potential for more independence.  The author notes ‘establishing a caring relationship 
is much more complicated than it initially appears. This is because it involves considerable 
preparation and requires a very substantial skill set’ (p. 81).
Reading this book made me think that in training courses, such as those for orientation 
and mobility practitioners, there is a need for greater understanding of sensory development. 
This book is a good starting point as the author provides the background knowledge in the 
area of sense anatomy and development. This book is therefore useful for both new and 
experienced practitioners.  
It was also encouraging to see the promotion of a ‘unified approach’ to working with 
people who have challenging sensory needs.  I have found this approach particularly 
helpful in the rural program mentioned earlier.  This program has only worked because the 
orientation and mobility instructor, physiotherapists, speech therapist, music teacher, class 
teachers, and families have all provided input and contributed to the running and success of 
the program.
In summary, this book has definitely contributed to my understanding of sense learning and 
development and how to design a multisensory program.  I am reminded to think in greater 
depth about how I can assist the children I work with to understand their environment and 
to help them to make use of multisensory information in order to facilitate the development 
of more accurate, valid, and dependable interpretations of the environment.
Rachel Morgan, BA., Grad Dip O&M, M. Teaching (Primary), Dip. Management. Team Leader/Orientation 
& Mobility Instructor, Children’s Mobility Service, Guide Dogs Victoria, Australia; e-mail: <rachel.m@
guidedogsvictoria.com.au>.  


The Multisensory Handbook: A Guide for Children and Adults with Sensory Learning Disabilities

Diamond, B.Sc., Grad. Dip (IT), Maryanne

International Journal of Orientation & Mobility • Volume 5, Number 1, 20128
Orientation and Mobility 
Challenges Around the World
Maryanne Diamond
The World Blind Union (WBU) is an international not-for-profit organisation, 
representing people who are blind or partially sighted worldwide. The WBU is 
recognised as the international voice of persons who are blind or partially sighted 
speaking on their behalf at the United Nations, UN agencies and other international 
organisations. Its mission is achieved with and through its members – organisations 
of persons who are blind and partially sighted and organisations providing services 
to persons who are blind and partially sighted in some 190 countries and through 
six Regional Unions.
The World Blind Union (WBU) believes 
that lack of proper mobility training, access 
to the built environment, and inaccessible 
transportation pose some of the most 
significant obstacles to persons who are blind 
and partially sighted in accessing community 
services, education and employment, and 
participating fully in their communities.
This paper addresses the challenges of 
accessibility experienced by WBU members, 
outlines some of the initiatives the WBU is 
undertaking to overcome these and suggests 
ways the O&M sector could work with the 
WBU. 
Here are some important facts about 
blindness:
•   The World Health Organisation estimates 
there are 285 million persons who are 
blind or partially sighted worldwide 
•   Of these, 39 million are totally blind 
•   Close to 90% of these persons live in 
developing countries
•   Less than 10% of children who are blind 
living in developing countries receive any 
form of education
•   Unemployment of persons who are blind 
or partially sighted is around 90% in 
developing countries and around 70% in 
the most developed world
•   Between 95 – 99% of published books are 
never produced in a format which can be 
read by people who are blind or partially 
sighted.
The challenges of accessibility fall 
into three areas: (i) accessing the built 
environment (ii) using transportation and 
(iii) access to mobility training.
The built environment includes the issues 
of silent vehicles, shared spaces, way finding, 
and suitable pedestrian infrastructure such as 
footpaths and accessible pedestrian signals. 
The issue of silent cars has resulted 
in a great deal of advocacy over recent 
years. The UN WP-29 (World Forum for 
Harmonization of Vehicle Regulations) is 
International Journal of Orientation & Mobility • Volume 5, Number 1, 2012 9
working on developing a Global Technical 
Regulation (GTR) to establish a minimum 
sound standard for electric and hybrid 
electric vehicles. They have established a 
working group known as the Quiet Road 
Transport Vehicle (QRTV) to which WBU 
has a representative.
The trend towards shared spaces is being 
rolled out in many parts of the world. The 
WBU shares the concerns of many about the 
safety and loss of independent mobility that 
these shared space environments pose. 
In many parts of the world where our 
members live, transportation of any kind 
often does not exist or is not safe to use. 
Moreover, the lack of consistent footpaths 
makes using public transportation very 
challenging. Where public transportation 
does exist, a problem often encountered 
by our members relates to location of entry 
points, information about payment, services, 
timetables, wayfinding within transportation 
terminals, and the huge issue of safety. 
All forms of transportation are affected 
by the issue of use of dog guides. Even in 
the most developed world where there is 
legislation permitting access, this legislation 
is inconsistent, imposing barriers for travel 
from one country to another. In addition, 
users of dog guides continue to fight battles 
that arise from being denied entry to venues 
and/or taxi services.
Access to mobility training services 
is a major issue for our members in all 
parts of the world. The Convention on the 
Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD) 
which came into force in 2006 is one of 
the greatest tools we have which can make 
a real difference to accessibility. There are 
two articles of particular relevance - Article 
9: Accessibility, and Article 20: Personal 
Mobility.
The WBU has developed a Toolkit to 
assist our members to advocate with their 
governments to sign, ratify, implement, and 
monitor the CRPD. Access to information 
plays a key role in accessing the built 
environment, transport, and access to 
appropriate services. The WBU is working 
to achieve a treaty which would allow the 
sharing of information produced in alternate 
formats, under exceptions to national 
copyright law, be shared with persons who 
are blind in other countries.
Our technology working group has as one 
of its priorities the promotion of affordable 
mobile devices. A great deal of work is 
happening with manufacturers to ensure 
that their products are accessible ‘off the 
shelf’. There are Apps. for wayfinding that 
are accessible in addition to the devices 
developed specifically for persons who 
are blind. Of course, access to resources 
to purchase such devices and obtain the 
training in how to use these is something we 
need to address.
Suggested areas where the WBU and the 
O&M sector could work together include:
•   Research, bringing together the 
perspective of persons who are blind and 
those providing services 
•   Problem-solving the ways to bring more 
mobility training services to those who 
currently have no or very limited services
International Journal of Orientation & Mobility • Volume 5, Number 1, 201210
•   Harnessing the technological advances to 
ensure their accessibility and providing 
appropriate training in their use 
•   Promoting accessibility of mainstream 
devices at the design stage. 
Maryanne Diamond, B.Sc., Grad. Dip (IT), President 
World Blind Union, Kooyong, Melbourne; e-mail: 
<maryanne.diamond@visionaustralia.org >. 


Orientation and Mobility Challenges Around the World

Perla, Ed.D., COMS., Fabiana

International Journal of Orientation & Mobility • Volume 5, Number 1, 201228
Whose Learning is it? Fostering 
Student Ownership in Orientation 
& Mobility
Fabiana Perla
There is a growing body of literature (Ashcroft, 1987; Kohn, 1993; O’Neal & 
Calabrese Barton, 2005; Rainer & Matthews, 2002; Wood, 2003; World Health 
Organization, 2010) that encourages age-appropriate choice and control as a way to 
develop student ownership in a variety of educational areas.  However, exactly what 
student ownership is and how it manifests in the context of orientation and mobility 
(O&M) services appear to be more elusive concepts.  This article is an attempt to 
advance our understanding of student ownership in O&M while providing concrete 
strategies to foster engagement and decision making, two key aspects of student 
ownership.
Introduction
While decision-making and active 
engagement in learning is important in 
all areas of education, they are critical in 
the context of O&M. In order to be an 
independent and successful traveller, one 
needs to constantly assess situations and 
make decisions in unpredictable, sometimes 
unsafe environments. 
The relationship between decision-
making and independent travel is not the 
only reason why we should try to engage 
students in their mobility experience; 
there is also the question of meaning (i.e., 
“What does O&M mean to you?”) This 
fundamental question can only be answered 
by the student (and their family when 
appropriate) receiving the services. If O&M 
is to be relevant to the individual, then that 
individual’s voice should have a prominent 
place in the planning, implementation, and 
evaluation of the learning experience. 
Assessment and student 
ownership
On-going assessments, observations, 
and reviews that inform teacher instruction 
and provide students feedback on a regular 
basis have been found beneficial to student 
achievement.  Such formative assessments 
appear to be most effective when not only 
the teacher but also the student understands 
where he stands in his trajectory towards 
his learning goals (Sadler, 1989). For this to 
happen, strategies need to be implemented 
that allow the student to clearly understand 
1) what the goal means 2) his current place 
in relation to it, and 3) actions that he could 
take to move closer to the learning goal 
(Brookhart, Moss, & Long, 2009).
International Journal of Orientation & Mobility • Volume 5, Number 1, 2012 29
The following case study illustrates an 
effective strategy that can (a) promote active 
student participation in assessing O&M 
progress and (b) making decisions about 
current and future instruction: 
Cindy was a high school student with no 
light perception and a hearing impairment 
that required the use of hearing aids. One 
of her stated O&M goals was to walk home 
from school independently, a route that 
involved crossing three intersections and 
walking along one block with no sidewalks. 
Although she wanted to master the task, she 
had also expressed high anxiety about the 
time when the instructor might decide that 
she was ready to do it on her own. Instead 
of assuming that responsibility for herself, 
the instructor shared it with the student by 
creating a chart that would help them both 
assess her daily progress and make shared 
decisions. The chart consisted of a column 
for the date of the lesson, one for challenges/
problems encountered that day, one for 
comfort level, one for comments and finally 
the duration of the trip.  Student and teacher 
decided ahead of time that when the column 
for problems was left consistently blank 
and Cindy’s comfort level reached 8-10 
points, they would discuss the possibility 
of independent travel. With this approach, 
Cindy felt a sense of control and her anxiety 
decreased almost immediately. At the end of 
Table 1. Assessment of progress chart.
Date Challenges/
problems
Comfort
Level 
(0 lowest -10
highest)
Comments Duration
First
independent
trip
a)  Got disoriented 
at driveway on 
Walnut St.
 b)  Unsure when 
to cross school 
driveway (lots 
of car and 
pedestrian 
traffic)
4 Raining hard (made waiting for “all  
quiet” difficult, since rain carried the 
sound of cars longer)
30 min.
10th
independent 
trip
Masking sound 
at Thomas Av. 
created by leaf 
blower. Waited 
until sound 
stopped and 
crossed when all 
quiet.
8 Discussed alternatives for dealing 
with masking sounds:
a.  wait until sound is off or faint 
enough
b.  use a shield car to cross
c.  wait for assistance from passerby
d.  try an alternative route if possible
e.  try to get attention/assistance 
from person causing the masking 
sound
23 min.
15th , 16th 
and 17th,
independent
trips
None “9ish” 20 min.
International Journal of Orientation & Mobility • Volume 5, Number 1, 201230
each lesson, they would go over the chart 
and fill in the blanks. Table 1 shows an 
excerpt from the chart, including her first 
trip, one in the middle and the last three. 
Choice and student ownership
The concept of choice is complex and 
multifaceted. One classification, expressed 
by Stefanou, Perencevich, DiCintio, and 
Turner (2004) is particularly helpful when 
reflecting on choice in the context of O&M. 
The authors identify three types of choice:
1. Organisational choice e.g., selecting 
what to work on first, choosing 
destinations
2. Procedural choice e.g., selecting what 
device to use for a particular task, 
selecting a media to follow directions 
such as written or verbal
3. Cognitive choice e.g., discussing 
various strategies, engaging in problem 
solving, formulating personal goals, 
debating ideas, asking questions.
While all three types of choice are 
important and have a role in O&M instruction, 
they are not equal in their ability to promote 
student ownership. Organisational and 
procedural choices have been called “the 
bells and whistles” of instruction because 
of their role in motivation and temporary 
engagement. Cognitive choice, on the 
other hand, can be considered “the hold” 
because of its role in promoting long lasting 
autonomy (Mitchell, 1993). 
While choice has to be age-appropriate, 
this does not mean we as instructors should 
give only organisational and procedural 
choices to young children and reserve 
cognitive choice for the older students or 
adults. What it means is that cognitive choice 
must be adapted according to the age of the 
child, considering previous experiences, 
and his/her level of ability. In other words, 
instructors must meet the students where 
they are in the continuum and help them 
move forward. 
Engaging students cognitively can be 
as simple as asking questions and posing 
challenges. As students get older, more 
experienced, or demonstrate higher levels 
of ability, their engagement can become 
more sophisticated. Below is an example of 
cognitive engagement and choice leading to 
the selection of a specific cane tip. 
Wei was 10 years old and had severe low 
vision (5/800 OU) when she started O&M 
instruction. Rather than providing her with a 
particular cane and tip, the instructor asked 
for her assistance finding the one that was 
right for her. For a number of weeks, Wei 
experienced walking with different canes/
cane tips and recorded her observations. 
For example, she created a chart where she 
brailled the name of the different tips she had 
tried, drew pictures of them, and recorded 
their advantages, limitations, and price 
(her chosen categories). She also suggested 
adding a column to give each cane tip an 
overall grade (Figure 1).
The process of trying various devices and 
recording her observations was appealing 
to Wei, who had an analytic mind. She 
developed a strong sense of ownership 
regarding her travel device, as she was 
able to identify her preferred device and to 
articulate why, in her opinion it was superior 
to the other ones she had tried.
International Journal of Orientation & Mobility • Volume 5, Number 1, 2012 31
Goal setting and student 
ownership
Many students are not aware of what their 
Individual Education Plan (IEP) 1 mobility 
goals are for the year and in what ways they 
are relevant for their lives. Depending on 
the student’s age and level of ability, having 
an open discussion when developing goals 
and engaging in negotiating/prioritising can 
go far in promoting student ‘buy-in’ and 
commitment in the O&M process. When 
1  In the U.S, IEP meetings are held annually for children 
who have been identified as having a disability. These 
meetings produce a legally binding document that 
spells out what special education services the child 
will receive and why, and details individualised goals 
in each area of instruction. 
student participation in IEP meetings is not 
possible or appropriate, other alternatives 
may be considered to ensure the child’s 
voice is being represented: 
a. The mobility instructor meets ahead of 
time with the student to discuss possible 
goals and then again after the meeting 
to report back to the student what was 
discussed/decided at the meeting and 
why
b. The student writes/records a mobility 
statement to be presented at the meeting 
c. Student and instructor put together 
a brief video showing the student’s 
current skill level and progress made 
in mobility to help inform future 
decisions.
Figure 1. Cane tip chart.
International Journal of Orientation & Mobility • Volume 5, Number 1, 201232
Cultural considerations
Being actively involved in one’s 
education, asking questions, showing 
initiative, taking risks, or bringing up issues 
or concerns are not necessarily behaviours 
valued by all cultures. In fact, some of these 
behaviours can be in direct opposition to 
what students experience and are taught at 
home. 
The ways in which student involvement 
manifests during mobility depends on 
culture, prior experiences, personality, and 
learning style, among several other factors. 
A quiet, compliant student who has a clear 
understanding of what his/her goals are 
and is fully committed to the training may 
be as (or more) engaged than a very vocal 
student. In contrast, the vocal students’ 
main participation in the O&M process 
might consists of choosing destinations and 
selecting rewards at the end of a lesson, 
without being aware of his/her long term 
goals or how the skills he/she is practicing 
apply to his/her everyday life. It is, therefore, 
essential for O&M teachers to respectfully 
explore each student/family’s style, beliefs, 
and values and the ways they conceive their 
participation in the O&M process. Honest 
and respectful communication about these 
issues may uncover preconceptions and 
misunderstandings and lead to better and 
more satisfying partnerships. 
Conclusion 
Sharing control of O&M instruction with 
students can take place at all phases of the 
learning process, including developing 
goals, designing the style of instruction and 
assessing progress. However, giving the 
student total choice of what to learn, when 
and how is not appropriate and it is not what 
empowerment is all about. In fact, having 
that much power can leave the unprepared 
student confused and uncomfortable. 
Student ownership represents a continuum; 
it is dynamic and fluid and does not manifest 
in the same way for all students.  It is a 
process through which children learn to 
make decisions by making decisions, rather 
than by following directions (Kohn, 1993). 
Therefore, the approach is to meet students 
where they are and support them as they 
gradually increase their level of engagement. 
At the same time, instructors may also need 
to decide where they are in the continuum 
of promoting student partnerships and think 
about the steps they can take to gradually 
increase their comfort level with shared 
ownership. 
In sum, student-teacher partnerships can 
be viewed as journeys taken together in 
search of an answer to the question: What 
does O&M mean to you? 
References
Ashcroft, L. (1987). Defusing empowering: 
The what and the why. Language Arts, 
64(2), 142-56.
Brookhart, S., Moss, C., & Long, B. 
(2009). Promoting student ownership of 
learning through high-impact formative 
assessment practices. Retrieved from 
http://www.duq.edu/castl/_pdf/CASTL_
Technical_Report_1_09.pdf
Kohn, A. (1993). Choices and children: Why 
and how to let students decide. Phi Delta 
Kappan, 75(1), 8-20.
Mitchell, M. (1993). Situational interest: Its 
multifaceted structure in the secondary 
school mathematics classroom. Journal 
of Educational Psychology, 85, 424-436.
International Journal of Orientation & Mobility • Volume 5, Number 1, 2012 33
O’Neil, T., & Calabrese Barton, A. (2005). 
Uncovering student ownership in science 
learning: The making of a student created 
mini-documentary. School Science and 
Mathematics, 105(6), 292-301.
Rainer, J., & Matthews, M. (2002). 
Ownership of learning in teacher 
education. Action in Teacher Education, 
24(1), 22-30.
Sadler, D. R. (1989). Formative assessment 
and the design of instructional systems. 
Instructional Science, 18, 119-144.
Stefanou, C., Perencevich, K., DiCintio, M., 
& Turner, J. (2004). Supporting autonomy 
in the classroom: Ways teachers encourage 
student decision making and ownership. 
Educational Psychologist, 39(2), 97-110.
Wood, C. (2003). The effects of creating 
psychological ownership among students 
in group projects. Journal of Marketing 
Education, 25(3), 241-249. 
World Health Organization. (2010). 
Empower children and young people 
with intellectual disabilities.  Retrieved 
from http://www.euro.who.int/__data/
assets/pdf_file/0003/126570/e94430.pdf
Fabiana Perla Ed.D., COMS., Director O&M 
Programs, College of Education & Rehabilitation, 
Salus University, USA; e-mail: <fperla@salus.edu>.


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