Hartpury University Repository

Farquharson, Claire

Is flexible, contextualised online learning key for student engagement? A preliminary study exploring perceptions and experiences of online learning methods within sports therapy.

Sandford, Sarah

The Anatomy Behind Module Curriculum Design

Greening, Linda

Allen, Sian

McBride, Sebastian

Towards an objective measurement of sleep quality in non-human animals; using the horse as a model species for the creation of sleep quality indices

Williams, J. M.

Everything is Energy
Williams, J. M.
Published in:
Valor
Publication date:
2023
This document version is the:
Publisher's PDF, also known as Version of record
Find this output at Hartpury Pure
Citation for published version (APA):
Williams, J. M. (2023). Everything is Energy. Valor, 8-12.
Download date: 02. Mar. 2023
8 valor, EverytHing is energy
Everything is energy. How to unleash 
the full potential of your horse? 
The horse is an exceptional athlete 
whose performance is underpinned 
by the dynamic interrelationships 
between respiratory, cardiovascular, 
musculoskeletal , neuroendocrine 
and energy systems that enable them 
to perform. For optimal performance, 
all of the physiological systems 
work together holistically to provide 
the fuel or energy to generate and 
maintain movement. This article will 
explore the role of energy in race 
horse performance and consider how 
we can adapt training programmes 
to facilitate optimal performance 
for the individual horse. 
 ENERGY
valor, EverytHing is energy 9
 ENERGY
10 valor, EverytHing is energy
Exercise in the horse requires energy; this is provided at a cellular 
level to drive performance by adenosine triphosphate or ATP. 
However, as in all mammals including humans, the horse does not 
just have one method to generate the energy it needs for locomo-
tion. It is important to remember that a combination of aerobic 
(where oxygen is utilised as the main fuel) and anaerobic (where 
energy comes from other sources: primarily fats and carbohydrate 
stores) are used during exercise. Four energy pathways are used 
to support performance through the production of adenosine 
triphosphate or ATP as shown in the table below.
Aerobic vs. anaerobic energy utilisation
The type of energy utilised will be related to the type, duration 
and intensity of exercise being undertaken as well as the fitness 
and the muscle fibre blueprint of the horse. When oxygen is being 
utilised as the key fuel to generate energy or ATP, the horse is ex-
ercising aerobically, and when energy production does not involve 
oxygen it is anaerobic. In reality both aerobic and anaerobic ener-
gy pathways will be recruited to support exercise from moderate 
to high intensity levels. Stamina in performance is associated with 
aerobic pathways while fast explosive ‘power’ activities such as 
sprinting over short distances and jumping are associated with 
anaerobic pathways. Therefore, while flat horses coming out of 
the starting stalls, National Hunt horses when jumping and horses 
starting to tire will utilise anaerobic energy predominately, the 
bulk of performance for the equine athlete should be fuelled by 
aerobic pathways to achieve their best.
DR. JANE WILLIAMS IS AN ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR AND HEAD OF RESEARCH 
AT HARTPURY UNIVERSITY. SHE IS AN EXPERIENCED RESEARCHER, WITH 
A PASSION FOR ENHANCING EQUINE PERFORMANCE AND WELLBEING 
THROUGH INDUSTRY-INFORMED, REAL-WORLD RESEARCH THAT 
GENERATES CHANGE. 
Jane qualified as a Veterinary Nurse then gained her Masters in Equine  
Science before completing her doctorate exploring the application of 
surface electromyography as a tool to assess muscle adaptation during 
training in racehorses and sport horses. 
Her main areas of professional interest include scientific evaluation  
of equestrian performance, training and wellbeing, rider impacts on  
equitation, reliability assessment across equestrian science and veterinary  
physiotherapy, and human-animal interaction. Jane co-edited and authored 
‘Training for Equestrian Performance’ with Dr. David Evans, to showcase 
how science and research can be applied practically to improve perfor-
mance for horses and their riders, and has published over 100 research 
articles as well as regularly presenting at international equine conferences. 
She is also Honorary President for the International Society of Equitation 
Science, which promotes the application of objective research and ad-
vanced practice, to improve the welfare of horses in their associations  
with humans. Jane is also a founding member of the Sport horse  
Welfare Foundation.
Aerobic phosphorylation of adenosine diphosphate (ADP) using carbohydrate or 
glycogen stores in muscle tissue to generate ATP These two pathways are collectively  
known as oxidative phosphorylation 
(require Oxygen)
Aerobic phosphorylation of ADP using fatty acids or beta-oxidation to generate ATP
Anaerobic phosphorylation of ADP using high energy phosphate stores in skeletal 
muscle to generate ATP
Non-oxidative phosphorylation
Anaerobic phosphorylation of ADP using carbohydrates or glycogen muscle stores to 
generate ATP
ENERGY PATHWAYS IN THE HORSE 
valor, EverytHing is energy 11
Summary of energy pathways and muscle fibre recruitment from 
low to high intensity exercise in the horse.
Generally aerobic energy pathways produce energy at a faster rate 
but at a lower efficiency than anaerobic pathways, which while 
efficient, uses fuel available more quickly and depletes sooner 
producing lactate as a by-product. The accumulation of lactate is 
associated with the onset of fatigue and generally lactate values 
over the threshold of 4 mmol/l in the blood is indicative of fa-
tigue. Excessive accumulation of lactate within muscle contributes 
to intracellular acidosis and fatigue, and can contribute to exer-
tional rhabdomyolysis or tying up, however the energy production 
needed for galloping cannot occur without lactate production. 
Training programmes of >6 months have been demonstrated to 
improve the horse’s ability to remove lactate efficiently from the 
muscle cells, which can aid in reducing the negative effects of 
intracellular lactate accumulation on muscle acidosis and fatigue 
processes. In effect slowing the onset of fatigue and improving 
race performance. In reality horses are individual and lactate 
thresholds vary, with superior performers likely to possess more 
fast-twitch glycolytic fibres capable of generating glycolytic ATP at 
faster rates, able to tolerate larger increases in intracellular and 
blood lactate, and with muscle fibres capable of removing lactate 
from contracting muscle at high rates, giving them a performance 
advantage.
locomotion i.e. we train to improve aerobic capacity and delay the 
onset of fatigue.
Assessing VO2max is difficult in the horse as it requires a maximal 
exercise test, for example running to fatigue on a treadmill, and 
while this is achievable, it is not something we would normal-
ly undertake unless investigating poor performance. However, 
luckily, research has demonstrated that VO2max has a positive 
linear association with heart rate up to approximately 200 beats 
per minute in the horse. This means we can utilise heart rate as a 
proxy measure for aerobic capacity and facilitates access to moni-
toring aerobic performance via heart rate monitoring systems. 
The anaerobic threshold, when the horse has to utilise anaerobic 
energy pathways as well as aerobic during exercise, is considered 
to be between 75 to 85% of maximum heart rate; in our stud-
ies using racehorses we will commonly use 80% as the average 
threshold value. Heart rate in the horse ranges from resting values 
of 25 - 40 bpm to approximately 220 - 250 beats per minute (bpm) 
during maximal exercise; age will also influence maximum heart 
rate. Vincent et al (2006) proposed a simple, user-friendly method 
to estimate the anaerobic threshold for a horse which is easy  
to utilise:
Anaerobic threshold HR value using 80% of VO2max:  
(HR max using 240bpm as an average – age of horse =  
age adjusted HR max) x 0.80 = anaerobic threshold (bpm)
e.g. for a 4 year old racehorse: (240-4 = 236) x 0.80 =  
anaerobic threshold of 189 bpm
Traditionally racehorse training has been based on subjective 
rating of horse performance, visibly assessing the horse or via 
the assessment of the rider. Regular use of heart rate monitoring 
combined with assessment of lactate are a positive addition to a 
training regime. Having access to heart rate data can through the 
use of HR monitoring ideally with integrated GPS to also record 
speed and distance, provides the trainer with additional infor-
mation that can be used to determine the level of work a horse 
is undertaking and can help quantify fitness levels by providing 
objective data that can be recorded and monitored across time to 
enable the trainer to be fully informed about the level of exercise 
the horse is undertaking to inform their decision-making. For 
example, many trainers will utilise interval training within their 
programmes; the premise of this form of training is to undertake 
bouts of short duration, high intensity exercise to develop fitness 
but to be successfully implemented, the horse should recover 
before subsequent bouts. In an outdoor environment it is unlikely 
that a horse’s heart rate will drop to resting levels as heart rate 
is also influenced by behaviour and the horse reacting to its en-
vironment. However, our work has found that often rider assess-
ment of when a horse is recovered during interval training is not 
accurate and the horse’s heart rate is still high. We advocate the 
use of HR monitoring in this situation and using baseline recovery 
to walking heart rate levels of ~70-90 bpm before starting subse-
quent exercise bouts to get the maximum benefit from  
interval training. 
Another key tool for assessment of fitness in the horse is the 
integration of a standard exercise test (SET) into a training pro-
gramme. A SET, is as the name suggests, a comparative piece of 
work that can be utilised at regular intervals, we would recom-
Race performance and considerations for training
In racing, a combination of aerobic and anaerobic energy re-
cruitment is required to achieve optimal performance. Training 
programmes are designed to improve aerobic fitness, delaying 
the onset of the need to recruit the anaerobic pathways to 
support performance. A common method used across sport 
science for humans and horses, to assess an athlete’s individ-
ual aerobic capacity is to measure the rate of maximal oxygen 
uptake or VO2max: the velocity or speed when maximal oxygen 
consumption is achieved. It is a common misconception that 
the volume of air taken in each breath is the limiting factor for 
aerobic performance, while air (oxygen) input into the respirato-
ry system is can be a limiting factor to equine performance, it is 
the uptake of oxygen at tissue level in the muscles which is key 
to performance. Therefore, for optimal performance, the horse 
requires a functional respiratory system to take in oxygen and 
an efficient cardiovascular system to transport the oxygen to the 
cells in the muscles where it will be turned into aerobic fuel for 
12 valor, EverytHing is energy
mend every 3 or 4 weeks, to assess training progress. This can be 
a set distance at a consistent speed perhaps utilising the same 
gallops where heart rate and lactate can be monitored to assess 
progress; as aerobic fitness increases, HR and lactate should reduce 
for the same standard test. 
Regular monitoring of heart rate and converting average heart rates 
to the percentage of HRmax a horse is working at across intervals 
or pieces of work can be a beneficial addition to the trainer’s tool 
kit, helping assess performance potential by comparing workload 
to a known superior performance, to assess fitness, to be sure that 
the training plan is being executed and to prevent overtraining 
by providing data to show the level the horse is actually working 
at. Converting heart rates to % HRmax is easy to do: average HR 
/ age-adjusted maximum HR x 100% and can be easy to plot and 
monitor across time. For example: A 4-year-old racehorse, with aver-
age HRs for an interval training session: bout 1: 190bpm, 2: 203bpm; 
3: 226 bpm would be working at 81%, 86% and 96% of HRmax.
Recovery post exercise is also an important consideration; horses 
are amazing athletes and their heart rate will drop after exercise 
much quicker than humans, which is why we recommend using 
HR systems that monitor continuously. It is unrealistic to expect 
a racehorse’s heart rate to return to resting levels during a warm 
down from exercise but ideally, we are aiming for recovery levels of 
between 50-70 bpm within 5-10 minutes of the cessation of exercise, 
with the caveat that the environmental conditions can influence 
this. Monitoring the reduction of heart rate at 2-minute intervals 
post exercise can be another useful tool to assess fitness and 
performance potential in the racehorse. Extended recoveries can 
FEAR
Excitement/anticipation
Plasma to ECF   
Viscosity   
BP   
VO2 MAX:
Oxygen uptake in muscles Respiratory system 
 O2 in CV system  gets O2 there
SYMPATHETIC 
NERVOUS SYSTEM
Adrenalin / epiphrine release
HR, RR, SPLENIC 
CONTRACTION
Hb%, SV and Q
indicate the workload level is incorrect for the level of fitness of  
the horse.
Muscle is also important!
Skeletal muscle can make up to 40% of a racehorse’s bodyweight 
and provides the fundamental, mechanism for energy production to 
drive locomotion. Thoroughbreds as a breed have a genetic predis-
position through selective breeding to possess increased quantities 
of Type IIB and Type X muscle fibres that support high intensity, 
shorter duration exercise compared to breeds such as the Arabian, 
which are utilised for more endurance, low intensity activities (in-
creased Type I and Type IIA fibres). It is important to also recognise 
that muscle fibre profiles while determined by genetics, can be 
influenced by training regime and the introduction of canter and 
gallop exercise in a training regime will result in some Type I, slow 
twitch fibres transiting to Type IIAX fibres to support the increased 
exercise demands. 
Energy stores in the muscle are vital for optimal performance. Mus-
cle glycogen concentrations in horses at rest are approximately 100 
mmol/kg of wet muscle, rising to 150 mmol/kg in trained horses, 
however these stores can be used up quickly with a single exercise 
session capable of depleting reserves by a third and a high intensity 
exercise session by up to 50%. Therefore, when planning training 
and racing schedules considerations should be given to the energy 
demands of repeated exercise and allowing sufficient recovery time 
for muscle energy reserves to replete (which can take between 48 
and 72 hours) before the next bout of intense exercise or a race  
will occur.  
Final thoughts
Racehorse success is measured in terms of performance at the 
races, however more than ever how the industry safeguards race-
horse welfare is being scrutinised by non-racing stakeholders who 
question racing’s social license to operate. Utilising evidence-in-
formed training methods can reduce the risk of injury and have the 
potential to extend the careers of racehorses, be that in racing or 
their second careers when they leave the track, but also can support 
trainers to enable optimal performance from the racehorses in their 
care. Understanding how energy systems underpin performance and 
how we can increase and monitor aerobic athletic capacity as well 
as monitoring horses as individual athletes should help to  
achieve this.
ANAEROBIC
<180BPM
AEROBIC
>180BPM
VS
EXERCISE 
LEVEL LOW INTENSITY MEDIUM INTENSITY HIGH INTENSITY
**
Walk  Working trot
Extended/Collected trot   
Working canter Galloping and Jumping
FIBRE 
RECRUITMENT
Type I+++    Type IIA+ Type I+    Type IIA+++    Type IIAX++ Type I+    Type IIA+    Type IIAX+++   Type IIX+++
*  Vincent et al., 2006 | **  Or prolonged submaximal exercise)
THE ANAEROBIC / LACTATE THRESHOLD IS USUALLY ATTAINED AT 75 – 85% HR MAX
HR MAX FOR HORSE = 220 – 240 BPM, SO ANAEROBIC THRESHOLD IS ~ 178 – 204 BPM
SUMMARY OF ENERGY PATHWAYS AND MUSCLE FIBRE RECRUITMENT 
FROM LOW TO HIGH INTENSITY EXERCISE IN THE HORSE.
RESPONSE TO EXERCISE IN THE HORSE


English

Everything is Energy

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A Research Teams' Reflections on Conducting Emotionally Demanding Research with
the Bereaved
Batey, Jo; Szedlak, Christoph
Publication date:
2022
This document version is the:
Publisher's PDF, also known as Version of record
Find this output at Hartpury Pure
Citation for published version (APA):
Batey, J., & Szedlak, C. (2022). A Research Teams' Reflections on Conducting Emotionally Demanding
Research with the Bereaved.
Download date: 26. Nov. 2022
Jo.Batey@winchester.ac.uk
Twitter: @DrJoBatey
Conducting emotionally demanding research made research 
team members vulnerable to secondary trauma. Coping 
strategies employed were informal, reactive, and insufficient to 
address researcher self-care and wellbeing
THEME 1 - RECOGNISING 
VULNERABILITY
“We were thrown in at the deep end 
to an extent … It was tough hearing 
some of the stories and I'm not sure 
we were quite prepared for how to 
respond … We did have a (research 
team) meeting at the start, but I 
don't think we really knew quite 
what it was really going to be like 
then. And perhaps we researched 
the wrong things to prepare 
ourselves. We were researching CTE 
and trying to understand that. I think 
we needed to research how to 
interview people in these situations 
and how to prepare for it”
THEME 2 - EXPERIENCING 
VULNERABILITY
“I feel a bit guilty for doing this 
research.  They’re really traumatised, 
really upset … One side (of me) is 
saying, “This person is just human, 
and they just need love and support 
and care”. And then there's another 
part that's for research going, “I 
really need to hear what you have to 
say because I need to write that 
down as data... And that was quite 
hard as a researcher... But I just kept 
going, in my own head, “The long-
term impact of this research is more 
important than my own feelings or 
individual families”’.
THEME 3 - COPING WITH 
VULNERABILITY
“There was one time I went to my 
room and had an hour. Just away 
from it all. Just went and changed my 
shoes, changed my shirt. So 
physically freshened up to mentally 
freshen up as well. It felt good to get 
away. Just to forget about things for 
a bit”
“And so, I think just being able to go 
up to each other. You can't do 
anything about what you've taken on 
board, but you can certainly say I 
understand that was tough. I 
understand that and “it's okay.”
Introduction Methodology & Methods Results Discussion
• Although research in some domains 
(e.g., health-care professions) has 
recognized the repercussions of 
conducting emotionally demanding 
research (EDR) on researchers, this has 
yet to be considered in sport or exercise 
domains. 
• As such, we leave researchers open to 
experiencing and living with the effects 
of their vulnerability when the research 
has ended.
• Despite more advanced understanding 
of the existence of researcher 
vulnerability in some fields, this has not 
translated to moves to safeguard 
researcher wellbeing which has largely 
been ignored at both individual and 
institutional levels.
• The work was underpinned by 
interpretivism, specifically ontological 
relativism and epistemological 
constructivism.
• Six research team (RT) members 
travelled to a conference to interview 
family members bereaved through the 
repercussions of traumatic brain injury 
caused by contact sport.
• Semi-structured interviews were 
conducted with the RT upon their 
return.
• Post-conference some of the RT 
conducted online interviews with 
bereaved family members unable to 
attend the original conference. These 
RT members were re-interviewed.
Four themes
• Recognising Vulnerability
• Naivety
• Under Prepared
• Experiencing Vulnerability
• Emotional Labour
• Vicarious Trauma
• Dual roles
• Coping with Vulnerability
• Self-Care
• Social Support
• Detached Vulnerability
• This research supports findings in other 
fields which demonstrate that researchers 
can be significantly vulnerable when deeply 
engaging with participants and listening to 
stories of grief and trauma (e.g., Johnson & 
Clarke, 2003; Wray et al., 2007; Woodby et 
al., 2011; Howard & Hammond, 2019).
• Various pathways to vulnerability were 
identified when interviews were conducted 
face-to-face. Secondary trauma was less 
evident when interviews were conducted 
online, although there was a perception that 
data quality was negatively impacted.
• There is a need for better preparation and 
support at both individual and institutional 
level for researchers who open themselves 
up to such vulnerability.
THEME 4 - DETACHED 
VULNERABILITY
“It’s much more difficult to get 
sucked into the emotion, because it’s 
just a person on a computer screen, 
you know? So, I felt that was easier”
So, I think we’ve just got to accept 
that we’re going to get nowhere near 
the depth of data if we do it that way 
(online)  and that needs some 
thinking about”
A Research Teams' Reflections on Conducting Emotionally 
Demanding Research with the Bereaved
Dr Jo Batey


A Research Teams' Reflections on Conducting Emotionally Demanding Research with the Bereaved

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