Hartpury University Repository

Wills, Alison

How does water depth affect muscle activity when dogs walk on a water treadmill?

Rudd, M.

Farmer-Day, C.

Clayton, H.

Williams, Jane

Marlin, David

English

Comparison of stirrup lengths chosen for flatwork by novice and experienced riders

Lewis, Georgia

Holt, Susan

INTRODUCTION
Osteoarthritis (OA) is a chronic musculoskeletal condition that is commonly seen in dogs. Currently there is no cure and animals may develop adverse effects as a result of prescribed 
medications used to treat the condition. These medications can reduce quality of life and may affect the animal’s overall lifespan. Low-level laser therapy (LLLT) is a non-invasive 
treatment that has been proven to reduce pain and inflammation.  It has been used to treat numerous human pathologies by increasing vasodilation and adenosine triphosphate in 
damaged cells’ mitochondria (Alfredo et al. 2018 and Gobbo et al. 2011) (Plate 1).  However, existing evidence for the use of LLLT in veterinary species is predominantly anecdotal. 
METHODS
The repeated measures design assessed
hindlimb gait with 2-D kinematic analysis, on a
convenience sample of dogs (N=7) diagnosed
with OA of the hindlimbs, before, mid-way and
after a veterinary prescribed course of six
treatments of LLLT. Each participant was fitted
with reflective kinematic markers on anatomical
landmarks on both hindlimbs (Plate 2).
Participants were recorded walking for 5 metres
in both directions along a flat pavement.
Maximum flexion and extension was recorded
along the sagittal plane using Dartfish gait
analysis software. LLLT was delivered following
World Association for Laser Therapy guidelines
to provide pulsed 10-12 j/cm2 to each OA joint
(Bjordal, 2012). The treatment was repeated
twice a week for 2 weeks then once a week for 2
weeks.
Owners were asked to complete an evaluation
using Likert scales at the end of treatment.
The Effects of Low-level Laser Therapy on the Gait of the Osteoarthritic Canine Hindlimb. 
RESULTS
Data were analysed using non-
parametric tests due to the low sample
size. A Friedman’s 2-way ANOVA was
used to detect differences with a post
hoc Wilcoxon signed rank test used
where significance was found.
A significant increase in extension was
noted in both the right (P=0.001) and
left (P=0.003) hip and right (P=0.001)
and left (P=0.001) tarsal joints between
the cohorts’ first and final recordings.
There was also a significant increase in
the cohorts’ right (P=0.001) and left
(P=0.001) stifle joint extension and
right and left hip and tarsal joint flexion.
Owners also reported positive changes
in their dogs’ behaviour relating to
decreased pain, after therapy had
occurred.
CONCLUSIONS
These findings suggest that following LLLT, improved range of motion is seen in osteoarthritic canine hindlimbs, after a course of six treatments. 
Whilst these results are promising, further research is required to elucidate the role of LLLT in the clinical management of dogs with OA.
Research objective: To investigate whether LLLT is an ethical and valid modality in the management of pain and dysfunction caused by hindlimb 
OA in dogs. 
Plate 1: The Mechanisms of Photobiomodulation (LiteCure, 2018)
Figure 1: Cohort Mean Values of Hip Joint 
Extension Pre LLLT Treatment, Midway and Post 
Initial Course of LLLT Treatment
Figure 3: Cohort Mean Values of Tarsal Joint 
Extension Pre LLLT Treatment, Midway and Post 
Initial Course of LLLT Treatment
Figure 2: Cohort Mean Values of Stifle Joint 
Extension Pre LLLT Treatment, Midway and Post 
Initial Course of LLLT Treatment
Plate 2: 2-D Hindlimb Kinematic Marker Placement 
Georgia Lewis B.Sc (Hons) and Susan Holt B.Sc (Hons) PGCHE Cert PM&A RVN FHEA
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Hip Extension Pre (n=7) Hip Extension Mid (n=7) Hip Extension Post (n=7)
Right Left
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Hip Extension Pre (n=7) Hip Extension Mid (n=7) Hip Extension Post (n=7)
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Tarsus Extension Pre (n=7) Tarsus Extension Mid (n=7) Tarsus Extension Post (n=7)
Right Left
REFERENCE: Alfredo P. P., Bjordal J. M., Junior W. S., Lopes-Martins R. Á. B., Stausholm M. B., Casarotto R. A. Marques A. P. and Joensen J. (2018) Long-term Results of a Randomised, Controlled, Double-blind Study of Low-level Laser Therapy Before Exercises in 
Knee Osteoarthritis: Laser and Exercises in Knee Osteoarthritis. Clinical Rehabilitation [Online]. 32, pp. 173 – 178. [Accessed 1 March 2018].
Bjordal J. M. (2012) Low Level Laser Therapy (LLLT) and World Association for Laser Therapy (WALT) Dosage Recommendations. Photomedicine and Laser Surgery [Online]. 30, pp. 61 – 2. [Accessed 2 February 2018].
Gobbo M., Ottaviani G., Mustacchi G., Di Lenarda R. and Biasotto M. (2011) Acneiform Rash Due to Epidermal Growth Factor Receptor Inhibitors: High Level Laser Therapy as an Innovative Approach. In: Lasers in Medical Science. 27, pp. 1085 – 1090.


The Effects of Low-level Laser Therapy on the Gait of the Osteoarthritic Canine Hindlimb.

Nankervis, Kathryn

Carter, Kathy

Equine Rehabilitation

Kopec, Nadia L.

Tabor, Gillian

Kinematic analysis of the thoracic limb of healthy dogs during descending stair and ramp exercises

Twigg-Flesner, Anke

Atherton, Graeme

Kendall, Steve

Naughton, Michael

Webster, Martin

"Things ain't what they used to be"- Addressing Mature Student Needs:A Case Study in an HE in FE Setting

Equine Rehabilitation: A Review of Trunk and Hind Limb Muscle Activity and Exercise Selection

Barr, Rachel

Clark, C. C. T.

Corbett, Jo

Draper, Stephen

 1 
 
Journal: Science & Sports 1 
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT: 8th January 2018 2 
Article title (English): Artefactual Incidence of V̇O2 Plateau and V̇O2max in Historical Studies: 3 
Time to Move on 4 
Article title (French): Le plateau définissant la VO2max dans les études classiques était-il un 5 
artefact 6 
Submission type: Brief Note 7 
Rachel Barr 1., Cain C. T. Clark 2., Jo Corbett 3., Stephen B. Draper 2 8 
1 University of Bristol, Faculty of Biomedical Sciences, Bristol, BS8 1TH, UK. 9 
2 University Centre Hartpury, Higher Education Sport, Gloucestershire, GL19 3BE, UK. 10 
3 University of Portsmouth, Department of Sport and Exercise Science, Portsmouth, PO1 2ER, 11 
UK. 12 
Corresponding author: Cain C. T. Clark, University Centre Hartpury, Gloucestershire, GL19 13 
3BE, cain.clark@hartpury.ac.uk, 01452 702193. 14 
Running head: Historical Incidence of Artefactual V̇O2 plateau. 15 
Manuscript character count: 1419 16 
Number of Figures and Tables: 1 figure; 1 table 17 
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 2 
 
1.0 Summary (English) 34 
Artefactual Incidence of V̇O2 Plateau and V̇O2max in Historical Studies: Time to Move on 35 
Purpose 36 
Contemporary understanding of the time course of oxygen uptake suggests that traditional 37 
discontinuous tests are of insufficient duration to elicit a fully developed V̇O2 response. 38 
However, this remains to be empirically demonstrated. Thus, the aims of the present study were 39 
(1) to investigate whether early V̇O2max assessments underestimated actual V̇O2, and (2) to 40 
investigate whether the apparent V̇O2 plateau observed in classic studies was an artefact of 41 
measuring in a non-steady state. 42 
Summary of Facts and Results 43 
Twelve males (age 28 ± 7 y, 1.78 ± 0.05 m, 80 ± 11 kg) each completed a constant speed 44 
discontinuous test. The study design replicated the increasing gradient discontinuous test used 45 
by Taylor, et al. 1. V̇O2 data were averaged during the 1.75-2.75 min (V̇O2.Taylor) time point and 46 
the final minute of each test (V̇O2.Final). A paired samples t-test was used to evaluate differences 47 
in V̇O2peak.Taylor and V̇O2peak.Final 48 
The V̇O2peak.Final was found to be significantly higher than V̇O2peak.Taylor (P<0.001, d = 1.18). 49 
The slope of the V̇O2 response, calculated from the last completed gradient for each participant 50 
was significantly different from zero during the 1.75-2.75 min (Taylor: P=0.009, d = 1.58; 51 
Final: P=0.02, d = 0.29). 52 
 53 
Conclusion 54 
V̇O2 plateau in historical studies was artefactual. Further investigation, without the fallacious 55 
assumptions of historical studies, may enable exercise physiologists and practitioners to 56 
determine which combination of exercise protocol and method of data acquisition is most 57 
conducive to elicit and detect a V̇O2 plateau. 58 
 59 
Key words: Maximal; Oxygen uptake; Plateau; Discontinuous; Measurement 60 
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 3 
 
Le plateau définissant la VO2max dans les études classiques était-il un artefact 72 
Résumé (Français) 73 
Introduction 74 
Les données actuelles sur la cinétique dans le temps de la consommation d'oxygène 75 
portent à penser que les tests discontinus traditionnels sont d'une durée insuffisante pour 76 
solliciter pleinement la réponse de V̇O2. Cela reste cependant à démontrer 77 
expérimentalement. Les objectifs de la présente étude étaient donc : (1) d'examiner si les 78 
évaluations précoces de V̇O2max sous-estimaient la V̇O2 et (2) d'étudier si le plateau 79 
apparent de V̇O2 observé dans les études classiques était un artefact de mesure 80 
représentant un état non stationnaire. 81 
 82 
Résumé des faits et des résultats:  83 
 84 
Douze sujets de sexe masculin (28 ± 7 ans, 1,78 ± 0,05 m, 80 ± 11 kg) ont chacun effectué 85 
un test incrémental par paliers à vitesse constante de pédalage. Ce protocole visait à 86 
reproduire le test par paliers à incréments constants utilisé par Taylor. Les données de 87 
V̇O2 ont été moyennées pendant l'intervalle de temps 1.75-2.75 min (V̇O2.Taylor) et à la 88 
minute finale de chaque test (V̇O2.Finale). Un test t pour échantillons appariés a été utilisé 89 
pour évaluer les différences de V̇O2pic.Taylor et de V̇O2pic.Finale. 90 
 91 
La V̇O2peak.Finale s'est révélée significativement plus élevée que la V̇O2peak.Taylor (P <0,001, 92 
d = 1,18). La pente de la réponse de V̇O2, calculée à partir du dernier icrément obtenu 93 
chez chaque participant était significativement différente de zéro pendant les intervalles 94 
1,75-2,75 min (Taylor: P = 0,009, d = 1,58, Final: P = 0,02, d = 0,29). 95 
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Conclusion 98 
 99 
Ces données indiquent que le plateau de V̇O2 décrit dans les études historiques était très 100 
probablement un artefact. Des recherches plus approfondies, évitant de se baser sur les 101 
présupposés vraisemblablement erronés des études historiques, pourraient permettre 102 
aux physiologistes de l'exercice et aux praticiens de déterminer quelle combinaison de 103 
protocole d'exercice et de méthode d'acquisition de données est la plus propice à 104 
l'induction et à la détection d'un authentique plateau de V̇O2. 105 
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Mots-clés: Exercice maximal; Consommation d'oxygène; Plateau; 108 
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 4 
 
2.0 Introduction 111 
The concept and existence of maximal oxygen uptake (V̇O2max) remains a contemporary and 112 
contentious topic of debate 2-4. Central to this debate (and indeed concept of V̇O2max) is V̇O2 113 
plateau, it being the only objective criteria to indicate the attainment of V̇O2max. 114 
Much debate has focussed on whether V̇O2max or plateau was achieved in historical studies. 115 
The use of short discontinuous tests (DCT), as opposed to modern ramp tests, was used 116 
commonly 1,5,6  to investigate V̇O2max. Taylor, et al. 1 was the first study to detect V̇O2 plateau 117 
in a large number of participants and has been asserted as empirical evidence that V̇O2 during 118 
progressive exercise meets a limit that cannot be exceeded. Taylor, et al. 1 compared two DCT 119 
protocols using a motorised treadmill to assess V̇O2max. The first of these tests used the Hill 120 
model of incremental speed increases at a predetermined gradient (n=13) 5,6. The second 121 
comprised incremented gradient increases (2.5%) at a constant speed (11.3 km.h-1) (n=115) 5,6. 122 
The advent of breath-by-breath analysis, providing greater insight into the time course of 123 
oxygen uptake (V̇O2 kinetics) 7,8, raises questions as to whether apparent plateau in classical 124 
studies was in fact artefactual, and indicative of measuring V̇O2 in the non-steady (dynamic) 125 
state 2-4,9. However, debate has focussed on re-examination of published data from classic 126 
studies 5,6, rather than use breath-by-breath analyses to provide clear, empirical evidence. 127 
In contemporary debate, the seminal works of A.V. Hill and colleagues 5,6 have been used to 128 
evidence the existence, or otherwise, of V̇O2 plateau 2-4. However, this work is empirically 129 
irreproducible due to the variable speeds and collection periods utilised 5,6. However, the work 130 
of Taylor, et al. 1, who utilised motorised treadmills, fixed collection periods and reported 131 
higher incidences of V̇O2 plateau, would enable successful replication. Further, results obtained 132 
through replicating Taylor, et al. 1 would be equally applicable to those of A. V. Hill and 133 
colleagues, as it is likely V̇O2 was still measured in the non-steady state.  134 
In Taylor, et al. 1, participants were required to run for 3 min; expired gas was then collected 135 
between 1.75-2.75 min. This timing was rationalized with the explanation that mean V̇O2 did 136 
not increase when gas was collected between 2 min 45 s and 3 min 45 s (3.48 L.min-1 vs. 3.45 137 
L.min-1). However, these values were not taken from the full sample. The treadmill gradient 138 
was increased by increments of 2.5% on consecutive days until either a V̇O2 plateau was 139 
detected or the participant failed to complete 3 min. This makes Taylor, et al. 1 a suitable study 140 
to replicate in order to investigate incidence of plateau in historical studies.  141 
A clear answer as to whether V̇O2 was artefactual in classic studies would enable contemporary 142 
debate to move on. Therefore, the aims of the present study were (1) to investigate whether 143 
early V̇O2max assessments underestimated actual V̇O2, and (2) to investigate whether the 144 
apparent V̇O2 plateau observed in classic studies was an artefact of measuring in a non-steady 145 
state. 146 
3.0 Methods 147 
3.1 Participants 148 
Twelve male recreationally active participants (mean ± SD; age 28 ± 7 y, height 1.78 ± 0.05 149 
m, mass 80 ± 11 kg) volunteered to participate in this study, which had been approved by the 150 
institutional research ethics committee. Written and informed consent was obtained prior to 151 
data collection. Participants were instructed to report to the laboratory in a well-hydrated, rested 152 
state, and having abstained from alcohol, and caffeine for the preceding 24 h and 6 h, 153 
respectively. This study conformed to the Declaration of Helsinki.  154 
 5 
 
3.2 Protocol 155 
Participants visited one-of-two laboratories, with identical equipment, to perform a DCT on a 156 
motorised treadmill (Ergo ELG 70, Woodway GmbH, Weil & Rhein, Germany), for the 157 
determination of V̇O2peak and V̇O2 plateau. The test started at 11.3 km.h-1 and a 0% gradient, 158 
and consisted of 8 min stages of running at increased gradient (2.5% increments) until 159 
volitional exhaustion, with no more than two transitions performed in a 24-hour period. The 160 
test was terminated when the participant was unable to perform a minimum of 3 min exercise 161 
at a given stage. Participants were instructed to perform maximally and to maintain the exercise 162 
for as long as possible.  163 
During the DCT test, participants wore a nose clip and breathed through a low-dead-space (90 164 
mL), low-resistance (5.5 cmH2O at 510 L.min
-1) mouthpiece and impeller turbine transducer 165 
assembly (Jaeger Triple V, Jaeger GmbH, Hoechburg, Germany). Inspired and expired gas 166 
volume and concentration signals were continuously sampled (at 100 Hz) and drawn from the 167 
mouthpiece through a 2-m sampling line (0.5 mm internal diameter) to paramagnetic (O2) and 168 
infrared (CO2) analysers (Jaeger Oxycon Pro, Hoechburg, Germany).   169 
3.3 Data Analyses 170 
The breath-by-breath V̇O2 data were initially examined to exclude errant breaths caused by 171 
coughing, swallowing etc., and those values lying more than 4 SD from the local mean were 172 
removed 10. Subsequently, the breath-by-breath data were interpolated to second-by-second 173 
data and time aligned to the start of exercise.  174 
The V̇O2peak was calculated as the highest 60-s sequential average. V̇O2 was also determined 175 
between 1.75-2.75 min for comparison to the findings in the sample of Taylor, et al. 1. Plateau 176 
was subsequently defined as a change in V̇O2 of <150ml.min-1 or <2.1ml.kg-1.min-1 between 177 
successive stages during the incremental stages 1. Thus, an 80% confidence interval was 178 
actually used to determine V̇O2 plateau, according to Taylor’s criteria 1.  Using this approach, 179 
a plateau in the V̇O2 treadmill gradient relationship was evident and produced plateau in 69% 180 
of the participants using the continuous Hill approach and in 94% (108 of 115) of participants 181 
using the discontinuous approach 5,6. 182 
3.4 Statistical analyses 183 
Linear regression was used to determine the slope of the V̇O2 response and was determined for 184 
1.75-2.75 min, and over the final minute of each DCT stage. A one-sample t-test was used to 185 
compare the slope of the V̇O2 response derived from the regression analysis. A paired-sample 186 
t-test was used to compare V̇O2peak derived from the criteria of Taylor 1 and final collection. 187 
Statistical significance was set as P < 0.05, and effect sizes were reported using Cohen’s d 11. 188 
Data were presented as mean ± SD unless otherwise stated. 189 
4.0 Results 190 
The V̇O2peak.Final was found to be significantly higher than V̇O2peak.Taylor (Table 1.) (P<0.001, d 191 
= 1.18). The slope of the V̇O2 response, calculated from the last completed gradient for each 192 
participant was significantly different from zero during the 1.75-2.75 min (Taylor: P=0.009, d 193 
= 1.58; Final: P=0.02, d = 0.29). Incidence of a V̇O2 plateau (ΔV̇O2 of <150ml.min-1 or 194 
<2.1ml.kg-1.min-1 between increments) was observed in 7 of 12 participants (58%), with some 195 
demonstrating multiple instances of plateau. Each participant successfully completed an 196 
additional increment and achieved higher V̇O2 following observation of a plateau. 197 
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**Table 1 about here**  200 
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**Figure 1 about here** 202 
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5.0 Discussion 204 
The principal findings of this investigation were that in classic studies 1, measured V̇O2peak 205 
could not have been V̇O2max, and, apparent plateau was clearly artefactual.  206 
Taylor, et al. 1 considered measurement of V̇O2 beyond 3 minutes to have no perceivable 207 
benefit, and similarly short collection periods were utilised by Hill and colleagues 5,6. The 208 
present study sought to demonstrate that when stage length was increased or higher intensities 209 
were attempted, a higher V̇O2 would be shown and these data clearly demonstrate a higher V̇O2 210 
is achieved, if stages are extended. Highlighting the fact that short stages will be measuring 211 
V̇O2 in the non-steady state, which is the cause of the artefactual plateau. 212 
Taylor, et al. 1 was a pragmatic study to replicate due to the high variability in speed and 213 
collection periods reported in Hill and colleagues 5,6, whilst Taylor, et al. 1 utilised motorised 214 
treadmills, uniform collection periods and reported high incidence of plateau. However, 215 
findings of the present study would be equally applicable to A. V. Hill and colleagues, as it is 216 
likely V̇O2 was still measured in the non-steady state. The advent of breath-by-breath analyses 217 
has enabled far greater scrutiny of whether V̇O2max is achieved, thereby allowing demonstration 218 
of an artefactual V̇O2 plateau. 219 
This study has not sought to add to clarification of the existence, or otherwise, of V̇O2 plateau 220 
(and by definition, V̇O2max), and cannot comment on mechanistic action. This study has, 221 
however, clearly demonstrated that V̇O2 plateau in historical studies was artefactual 1. It is 222 
evident that contemporary debate needs to move on, with little value in re-examination of, and 223 
referral to this historical work. Further investigation without the fallacious assumptions of 224 
historical studies may enable exercise physiologists and practitioners to determine which 225 
combination of exercise protocol and method of data acquisition is most conducive to elicit 226 
and detect a V̇O2 plateau. 227 
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6.0 References 240 
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1. Taylor HL, Buskirk E, Henschel A. Maximal oxygen intake as an objective measure of cardio-242 
respiratory performance. J Appl Physiol. 1955;8(1):73-80. 243 
2. Hale T. History of developments in sport and exercise physiology: A. V. Hill, maximal oxygen 244 
uptake, and oxygen debt. Journal of sports sciences. 2008;26(4):365-400. 245 
3. Noakes TD. How did A V Hill understand the VO2max and the "plateau phenomenon"? Still no 246 
clarity? British journal of sports medicine. 2008;42(7):574-580. 247 
4. Beltrami FG, Wong del P, Noakes TD. High prevalence of false-positive plateau phenomena 248 
during VO2max testing in adolescents. Journal of science and medicine in sport / Sports 249 
Medicine Australia. 2014;17(5):526-530. 250 
5. Hill AV, Lupton H. Muscular Exercise, Lactic Acid, and the Supply and Utilization of Oxygen. 251 
QJM : monthly journal of the Association of Physicians. 1923;62:135-171. 252 
6. Hill AV, Long CN, Lupton H. The effect of fatigue on the relation between work and speed, in 253 
contraction of human arm muscles. The Journal of physiology. 1924;58(4-5):334-337. 254 
7. Linnarsson D. Dynamics of pulmonary gas exchange and heart rate changes at start and end 255 
of exercise. Acta physiologica Scandinavica Supplementum. 1974;415:1-68. 256 
8. Whipp BJ. The Slow Component of O-2 Uptake Kinetics during Heavy Exercise. Medicine and 257 
science in sports and exercise. 1994;26(11):1319-1326. 258 
9. Mitchell JH, Sproule BJ, Chapman CB. The physiological meaning of the maximal oxygen intake 259 
test. The Journal of clinical investigation. 1958;37(4):538-547. 260 
10. Whipp BJ, Ward SA, Lamarra N, Davis JA, Wasserman K. Parameters of Ventilatory and Gas-261 
Exchange Dynamics during Exercise. Journal of applied physiology. 1982;52(6):1506-1513. 262 
11. Cohen J. Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences. 3rd. ed. New York: Lawrence 263 
Erlbaum Associates; 1988. 264 
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7.0 Figure Captions 281 
Figure 1. Individual participant plot for the same increment showing the measured V̇O2 282 
response to an exhaustive treadmill run. The individual slopes of V̇O2.Taylor (a) and V̇O2.Final (b) 283 
have been demarcated (bold lines), and for the last completed increment lasting approximately 284 
3.5 min. This shows the measured V̇O2 response to an exhaustive treadmill run and the slope 285 
of ΔV̇O2 during V̇O2.Taylor (c) and V̇O2.Final (d). 286 
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8.0 Tables 312 
Table 1. Group data obtained from the final constant-speed treadmill runs. 313 
Parameter Taylor Final 
V̇O2 (ml.min-1) 4109 ± 310 4480 ± 509* 
 
Slope (ml.min-2) 231 ± 146# 
 
 
35 ± 123ǂ 
 
 * Significantly different from Taylor (P<0.001, d = 1.18). # Significantly different from 314 
0 (P=0.009, d = 1.58). ǂ Significantly different from 0 (P=0.02, d = 0.29). 315 
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9.0 Figures 340 
FIGURE 1. 341 
 342 


Artefactual Incidence of V̇O2 Plateau and V̇O2max in Historical Studies: Time to Move on

Binks, John

Taylor, Sienna

Montrose, V. Tamara

The behavioural effects of olfactory stimulation on dogs at a rescue shelter

Black, Matthew I.

Potter, Christopher

Girard, Oliver

McCrimmon, Donald R.

Millet, Gregoire P.

Maximal Oxygen Uptake Is Achievedin Hypoxia but Not Normoxia during an Exhaustive Severe Intensity Run

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