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SJSU SAN JOSE STATE UNIVERSITY 
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1MINETA TRANSPORTATION INSTITUTE 
Understanding the Prevalence of Mental Health and Behavioral 
Distress in Transit Assaults and Presenting Targeted Response and 
Mitigation Methods to Reduce Victimization Trends 
Kathleen Moore, PhD Melissa Carlson Lisa Staes, MSM Project 2407 
Emilie Ellenberg, MA Jodi Godfrey, MSCE February 2025 
Introduction 
United States (U.S.) public transit systems face a 
broad spectrum of incidents, including physical and 
verbal assaults. In 2023, transit agencies reported 
2,200 major assault injuries sustained on public transit 
vehicles or within transit environments, the highest 
annual number recorded in the history of NTD data 
collection (NTD, 2024). 
Tis project gathered and analyzed extant literature 
and data to improve understanding of the prevalence 
of mental health and behavioral distress in transit 
assault events. From the literature review, case 
studies, and data analysis, the research team presented 
corresponding targeted response and mitigation 
methods to reduce victimization trends. Tis research 
can aid transit professionals and other stakeholders to 
better understand why and how mental health plays 
a role in transit assaults and how to integrate this 
understanding into response eforts to make transit 
safer for all. 
Study Methods 
Tis research includes a literature review, a data 
presentation and overview of reported public transit 
assault-related events, a discussion of contributing 
factors, and documentation of 10 public transit agency 
case study sites, including: 
• Ann Arbor Area Transportation Authority, Ann 
Arbor, Michigan 
• Broward County Transit, Ft. Lauderdale, Florida 
• Chicago Transit Authority, Chicago, Illinois 
• Dallas Area Rapid Transit, Dallas, Texas 
• Los Angeles County Metropolitan Transportation 
Authority, Los Angeles, California 
• Miami Dade Transit, Miami, Florida 
• New Jersey Transit Corporation, Newark, New 
Jersey 
• Pinellas Suncoast Transit Authority, St. 
Petersburg, Florida 
• Tri-County Metropolitan Transportation District 
of Oregon, Portland, Oregon 
• Washington Metropolitan Area Transit 
Authority, Washington, DC 
Te research team facilitated comprehensive site visit 
qualitative data collection. An initial survey was sent 
to case study sites to help frame and better understand 
the current conditions at each transit agency. A 
semi-structured, open-ended site visit protocol was 
developed iteratively by the research team, and an 
interview questionnaire was developed for each site 
visit based on each agency’s responses to the survey. 
Tis protocol was utilized to ensure data collection 
consistency. 
Qualitative data was analyzed using a narrative 
analysis methodological approach. Site visit data was 
transcribed verbatim for analysis. Te research team 
spent time immersed in the data to uncover underlying 
themes, patterns, and meanings embedded within 
the narratives. Findings were interpreted within the 
broader context of the evaluation research questions. 
Conclusions were validated through subjective 
assessment and debriefng during biweekly meetings. 
Findings 
Across the transit industry there are relevant 
challenges that must continue to be addressed, 
highlighting the need for coordinated national and 
agency-tailored approaches to improve public transit 
safety and transit worker support. Recommendations 
to the public transit industry based on this project’s 
fndings include: 
M I  N E  T  A  T  R  A N S P O R  T  A  T  I O N  I  N S T  I  T  U  T  E  transweb.sjsu.edu 
Project 2407   February 2025 M I  N E  T  A  T  R  A N S P O R  T  A  T  I O N  I  N S T  I  T  U  T  E  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
      
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MINETA 
TRANSPORTATION 
INSTITUTE 
• Establish a consistent and clear defnition of 
assault. 
• Expand de-escalation training to include mental 
health awareness and utilize real-world scenarios. 
• Implement specialized training for frontline 
workers and supervisors that is focused on 
recognizing the signs and symptoms of mental 
health challenges, substance abuse, fatigue, 
depression, or other health issues. 
• Actively pursue legislative support at both the 
state and federal levels to protect transit workers. 
• Establish and/or strengthen court advocacy and 
other support programs, such as confdential and 
easily accessible Employee Assistance Programs 
(EAPs). 
• Expand law enforcement presence and foster 
collaborative relationships with local law 
enforcement agencies and community-based 
organizations. 
• Improve data collection and associated analyses 
in support of risk assessment and management 
activities. 
• Implement operator safety barriers across the 
transit bus feet and mandate their use. 
• Expand and enhance video surveillance systems, 
particularly in high-risk areas, to further deter 
potential assaults, other forms of victimization, 
and vandalism. 
• Expand community outreach campaigns that 
may prove efective in addressing contributors to 
assault events. 
Policy Recommendations 
Te mental health conditions of transit workers are 
sometimes overlooked. Frontline workers, especially 
those who are regularly exposed to verbal abuse 
and assault, need protection and support services. 
Frontline workers who are victims of transit assault 
often experience emotional struggles, including 
PTSD-related conditions. Tere should be minimum 
standards for the employee support services that 
transit agencies provide to afected workers, such as 
comprehensive and confdential EAPs. 
All public transit agencies and transit workers 
would beneft from national legislation that protects 
transit workers from assaults, establishes assaults on 
transit workers as felonious, and provides mandatory 
penalties for assailants. 
About the Authors 
Kathleen Moore, PhD, is the executive director of 
the USF Louis de la Parte Florida Mental Health 
Institute; is a Research Professor in the Department 
of Mental Health, Law, and Policy; and served as the 
project’s advisor. 
Lisa Staes, MSM, is the associate director of USF’s 
Center for Urban Transportation Research (CUTR) 
and was the principal investigator. 
Melissa Carlson, BS, is a Research Project Manager 
in USF’s Department of Mental Health Law and 
Policy. 
Emilie Ellenberg, MA, is a current doctoral candidate 
in the College of Behavioral and Community Sciences 
PhD program and is also a Licensed Mental Health 
Counselor. 
Jodi Godfrey, MSCE, is a Senior Research Associate 
at CUTR. 
To Learn More 
For more details about the study, download the full 
report at transweb.sjsu.edu/research/2407 
MTI is a University Transportation Center sponsored by the 
U.S. Department of Transportation’s Ofce of the Assistant 
Secretary for Research and Technology and by Caltrans. Te 
Institute is located within San José State University’s Lucas 
Graduate School of Business. 
transweb.sjsu.edu M I  N E  T  A  T  R  A N S P O R  T  A  T  I O N  I  N S T  I  T  U  T  E  


Understanding the Prevalence of Mental Health and Behavioral Distress in Transit Assaults and Presenting Targeted Response and Mitigation Methods to Reduce Victimization Trends [Brief]

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