71 research outputs found
The significance of reindeer castration in the origins of domestication and human-reindeer relationships beyond the wild in Fennoscandia : an archaeological, osteological, and Traditional Knowledge perspective
No full textAbstract
This thesis contributes to the existing literature on the origin and transformation of ancient human-reindeer relationships. The study employs a novel perspective and explores the cultural and practical significance of reindeer castration. Through this subject matter, it considers the origins of domesticating human-reindeer relationships among the Indigenous Sámi of Fennoscandia. This study integrates osteometric analysis, documentation of Traditional Knowledge among contemporary reindeer herders, and the archaeological application of the insights gained thereby to investigate past and contemporary practices and considerations of castration.
The findings of Article 1 indicate that reindeer castration predominantly affects late-fusing bone elements and acts primarily through the feminisation of long bones in comparison to intact males (bulls). Article 2 presents the osteometric differences and similarities between female, castrated male, and intact male domestic reindeer, male and female wild Norwegian mountain reindeer, and male and female Finnish forest reindeer. The findings of Article 3 demonstrate that castration is a multifaceted practice that plays a key role in reindeer management and probably in incipient human-reindeer relationships. This is due to its effects on behaviour and physique, but also due to its function in control and partnership. Article 4 provides conclusive evidence for the practice of reindeer castration at the archaeological site of Markkina/Márkan, Enontekiö/Enodat, through the discovery of two castrated reindeer antlers.
This research has significant relevance to the recognition of the continuity and validity of Traditional Knowledge among Indigenous and non-indigenous reindeer herding communities, and to a deeper understanding of the reindeer domestication process. The study provides new and valuable insights into the practical, cultural, historical, and scientific significance of reindeer castration and underlines its importance in human-reindeer relationships. Finally, this research opens avenues for the further study of castration in the origins of other domestic species. It also accentuates the value of scrutinising the individual life histories of animals to archaeologically disentangle ancient human-animal relations. Original papers van den Berg, M., Wallen, H., & Salmi, A.-K. (2023). The osteometric identification of castrated reindeer (Rangifer tarandus) and the significance of castration in tracing human-animal relationships in the North. Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences, 15(1), 3. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12520-022-01696-y https://doi.org/10.1007/s12520-022-01696-y Self-archived version van den Berg, M., & Wallen, H. (2025). Osteometric distinctions between domestic reindeer (Rangifer tarandus tarandus), wild mountain reindeer (R.t.t.), wild forest reindeer (R.t. fennicus), and the identification of castrated reindeer bones: Biometric explorations and archaeological methods. Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences, 17(4), 94. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12520-025-02198-3 https://doi.org/10.1007/s12520-025-02198-3 Self-archived version van den Berg, M. (2025). Reindeer (Rangifer tarandus) castration in Fennoscandia: Domestication theory, archaeological methods, and interpretive perspectives. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology, 78, 101678. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaa.2025.101678 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaa.2025.101678 Self-archived version van den Berg, M., Wallen, H., & Salmi, A. K. (2025) First archaeological evidence of reindeer (Rangifer tarandus) castration as domestication among the Sámi of Northern Fennoscandia from the site of Markkina/Márkan, Enontekiö/Enodat. Manuscript in preparation. Tiivistelmä
Tämä tutkielma täydentää tutkimusta, joka käsittelee muinaisten ihmisten ja porojen välisten suhteiden alkuperää ja muuttumista. Tässä tutkimuksessa käytetään uudenlaista näkökulmaa ja tutkitaan porojen kastraation kulttuurisia ja käytännöllisiä merkityksiä. Tutkimuksessa pohditaan ihmisen ja poron domestikaatiosuhteen alkuperää Fennoskandian saamelaisten alkuperäiskansojen keskuudessa. Tutkimuksessa yhdistetään osteometrista analyysia ja nykyisten poronhoitajien perinteisen tiedon dokumentointia, ja näistä saatuja näkemyksiä sovelletaan arkeologisesti kastraatioon liittyvien menneiden ja nykyisten käytäntöjen ja näkökohtien tutkimiseen.
Artikkeli 1:n tulokset osoittavat, että porojen kastraatio vaikuttaa pääasiassa myöhään fuusioituviin luihin ja vaikuttaa ensisijaisesti pitkien luiden feminisoitumisen kautta verrattuna kastroimattomiin uroksiin (härkiin). Artikkelissa 2 esitellään osteometrisiä eroja ja yhtäläisyyksiä naaraspuolisten, kastroitujen urospuolisten ja kastroimattomien urospuolisten kotieläinporojen, urospuolisten ja naaraspuolisten luonnonvaraisten norjalaisten tunturiporojen sekä urospuolisten ja naaraspuolisten suomalaisten metsäporojen välillä. Artikkelin 3 tulokset osoittavat, että kastraatio on monitahoinen käytäntö, jolla on keskeinen rooli poronhoidossa ja todennäköisesti myös alkuvaiheen ihmis-poro-suhteissa. Tämä johtuu sen vaikutuksista poron käyttäytymiseen ja ruumiinrakenteeseen, mutta myös sen tehtävästä hallinnassa ja kumppanuudessa. Artikkelissa 4 esitetään vakuuttavia todisteita porojen kastrointikäytännöstä Markkina/Márkanin, Enontekiön/Enodatin, arkeologisella kohteella kahden kastroidun poronsarven löytymisen perusteella.
Tutkimuksella on merkitystä alkuperäis- ja ei-alkuperäiskansojen poronhoitoyhteisöjen perinteisen tiedon jatkuvuuden ja pätevyyden tunnustamisen kannalta sekä porojen domestikaatoprosessin syvällisemmän ymmärtämisen kannalta. Tutkimus tarjoaa uusia ja arvokkaita näkemyksiä porojen kastroinnin käytännön kulttuurisesta, historiallisesta ja tieteellisestä merkityksestä ja korostaa sen merkitystä ihmisen ja poron välisissä suhteissa. Lopuksi tämä tutkimus avaa väyliä muiden kotieläinlajien alkuperää koskevan kastraation jatkotutkimukselle. Se korostaa myös eläinten yksilöllisten elämänhistorioiden tutkimisen arvoa muinaisten ihmisten ja eläinten välisten suhteiden arkeologisessa selvittämisessä. Osajulkaisut van den Berg, M., Wallen, H., & Salmi, A.-K. (2023). The osteometric identification of castrated reindeer (Rangifer tarandus) and the significance of castration in tracing human-animal relationships in the North. Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences, 15(1), 3. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12520-022-01696-y https://doi.org/10.1007/s12520-022-01696-y Rinnakkaistallennettu versio van den Berg, M., & Wallen, H. (2025). Osteometric distinctions between domestic reindeer (Rangifer tarandus tarandus), wild mountain reindeer (R.t.t.), wild forest reindeer (R.t. fennicus), and the identification of castrated reindeer bones: Biometric explorations and archaeological methods. Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences, 17(4), 94. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12520-025-02198-3 https://doi.org/10.1007/s12520-025-02198-3 Rinnakkaistallennettu versio van den Berg, M. (2025). Reindeer (Rangifer tarandus) castration in Fennoscandia: Domestication theory, archaeological methods, and interpretive perspectives. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology, 78, 101678. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaa.2025.101678 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaa.2025.101678 Rinnakkaistallennettu versio van den Berg, M., Wallen, H., & Salmi, A. K. (2025) First archaeological evidence of reindeer (Rangifer tarandus) castration as domestication among the Sámi of Northern Fennoscandia from the site of Markkina/Márkan, Enontekiö/Enodat. Manuscript in preparation. Academic dissertation to be presented with the assent of the Doctoral Programme Committee of Human Sciences of the University of Oulu for public defence in Martti Ahtisaari auditorium (L2), Linnanmaa, on 19 September 2025, at 12 noonAbstract
This thesis contributes to the existing literature on the origin and transformation of ancient human-reindeer relationships. The study employs a novel perspective and explores the cultural and practical significance of reindeer castration. Through this subject matter, it considers the origins of domesticating human-reindeer relationships among the Indigenous Sámi of Fennoscandia. This study integrates osteometric analysis, documentation of Traditional Knowledge among contemporary reindeer herders, and the archaeological application of the insights gained thereby to investigate past and contemporary practices and considerations of castration.
The findings of Article 1 indicate that reindeer castration predominantly affects late-fusing bone elements and acts primarily through the feminisation of long bones in comparison to intact males (bulls). Article 2 presents the osteometric differences and similarities between female, castrated male, and intact male domestic reindeer, male and female wild Norwegian mountain reindeer, and male and female Finnish forest reindeer. The findings of Article 3 demonstrate that castration is a multifaceted practice that plays a key role in reindeer management and probably in incipient human-reindeer relationships. This is due to its effects on behaviour and physique, but also due to its function in control and partnership. Article 4 provides conclusive evidence for the practice of reindeer castration at the archaeological site of Markkina/Márkan, Enontekiö/Enodat, through the discovery of two castrated reindeer antlers.
This research has significant relevance to the recognition of the continuity and validity of Traditional Knowledge among Indigenous and non-indigenous reindeer herding communities, and to a deeper understanding of the reindeer domestication process. The study provides new and valuable insights into the practical, cultural, historical, and scientific significance of reindeer castration and underlines its importance in human-reindeer relationships. Finally, this research opens avenues for the further study of castration in the origins of other domestic species. It also accentuates the value of scrutinising the individual life histories of animals to archaeologically disentangle ancient human-animal relations.Tiivistelmä
Tämä tutkielma täydentää tutkimusta, joka käsittelee muinaisten ihmisten ja porojen välisten suhteiden alkuperää ja muuttumista. Tässä tutkimuksessa käytetään uudenlaista näkökulmaa ja tutkitaan porojen kastraation kulttuurisia ja käytännöllisiä merkityksiä. Tutkimuksessa pohditaan ihmisen ja poron domestikaatiosuhteen alkuperää Fennoskandian saamelaisten alkuperäiskansojen keskuudessa. Tutkimuksessa yhdistetään osteometrista analyysia ja nykyisten poronhoitajien perinteisen tiedon dokumentointia, ja näistä saatuja näkemyksiä sovelletaan arkeologisesti kastraatioon liittyvien menneiden ja nykyisten käytäntöjen ja näkökohtien tutkimiseen.
Artikkeli 1:n tulokset osoittavat, että porojen kastraatio vaikuttaa pääasiassa myöhään fuusioituviin luihin ja vaikuttaa ensisijaisesti pitkien luiden feminisoitumisen kautta verrattuna kastroimattomiin uroksiin (härkiin). Artikkelissa 2 esitellään osteometrisiä eroja ja yhtäläisyyksiä naaraspuolisten, kastroitujen urospuolisten ja kastroimattomien urospuolisten kotieläinporojen, urospuolisten ja naaraspuolisten luonnonvaraisten norjalaisten tunturiporojen sekä urospuolisten ja naaraspuolisten suomalaisten metsäporojen välillä. Artikkelin 3 tulokset osoittavat, että kastraatio on monitahoinen käytäntö, jolla on keskeinen rooli poronhoidossa ja todennäköisesti myös alkuvaiheen ihmis-poro-suhteissa. Tämä johtuu sen vaikutuksista poron käyttäytymiseen ja ruumiinrakenteeseen, mutta myös sen tehtävästä hallinnassa ja kumppanuudessa. Artikkelissa 4 esitetään vakuuttavia todisteita porojen kastrointikäytännöstä Markkina/Márkanin, Enontekiön/Enodatin, arkeologisella kohteella kahden kastroidun poronsarven löytymisen perusteella.
Tutkimuksella on merkitystä alkuperäis- ja ei-alkuperäiskansojen poronhoitoyhteisöjen perinteisen tiedon jatkuvuuden ja pätevyyden tunnustamisen kannalta sekä porojen domestikaatoprosessin syvällisemmän ymmärtämisen kannalta. Tutkimus tarjoaa uusia ja arvokkaita näkemyksiä porojen kastroinnin käytännön kulttuurisesta, historiallisesta ja tieteellisestä merkityksestä ja korostaa sen merkitystä ihmisen ja poron välisissä suhteissa. Lopuksi tämä tutkimus avaa väyliä muiden kotieläinlajien alkuperää koskevan kastraation jatkotutkimukselle. Se korostaa myös eläinten yksilöllisten elämänhistorioiden tutkimisen arvoa muinaisten ihmisten ja eläinten välisten suhteiden arkeologisessa selvittämisessä
Revised_Supplemental_WEE1i_synergizes_CHOP_and_radiation_TAH – Supplemental material for WEE1 inhibition synergizes with CHOP chemotherapy and radiation therapy through induction of premature mitotic entry and DNA damage in diffuse large B-cell lymphoma
No full textSupplemental material, Revised_Supplemental_WEE1i_synergizes_CHOP_and_radiation_TAH for WEE1 inhibition synergizes with CHOP chemotherapy and radiation therapy through induction of premature mitotic entry and DNA damage in diffuse large B-cell lymphoma by Mathilde R. W. de Jong, Myra Langendonk, Bart Reitsma, Pien Herbers, Monique Lodewijk, Marcel Nijland, Anke van den Berg, Emanuele Ammatuna, Lydia Visser and Tom van Meerten in Therapeutic Advances in Hematology</p
De impact van een buitenlandstage op de persoon en het beroepsbeeld van de leraar-in-opleiding
No full textOverzichtsuitgave bij het 10-jarig bestaan van de gecombineerde onderzoeksgroep LEVO/NP, bestaande uit de leerstoelgroep Levensbeschouwelijke Vorming aan de Universiteit Utrecht (UU) en het lectoraat Normatieve Professionalisering aan de Hogeschool Utrecht (HU). Met bijdragen van: Cok Bakker, Bram de Muynck, Inge Versteegt, Bas van den Berg, Elsbeth Vogel, Anne-Marije de Bruin-Wassinkmaat, George Lengkeek, Gertie Blaauwendraad, Peter Mesker, Dian Fluijt, Edwin van der Zande, Anouk Zuurmond, Jeannette den Ouden, Pim Klamer, Koen Wessels, Saro Lozano Parra, Robert Mentink, Anita Emans, Eline Belgraver, Marije Verkerk, Mathilde Tempelman-Lam, Nicolina Montessori, Ina ter Avest, Remco Coppoolse en Margreeth Kloppenburg
De impact van een buitenlandstage op de persoon en het beroepsbeeld van de leraar-in-opleiding
No full textOverzichtsuitgave bij het 10-jarig bestaan van de gecombineerde onderzoeksgroep LEVO/NP, bestaande uit de leerstoelgroep Levensbeschouwelijke Vorming aan de Universiteit Utrecht (UU) en het lectoraat Normatieve Professionalisering aan de Hogeschool Utrecht (HU). Met bijdragen van: Cok Bakker, Bram de Muynck, Inge Versteegt, Bas van den Berg, Elsbeth Vogel, Anne-Marije de Bruin-Wassinkmaat, George Lengkeek, Gertie Blaauwendraad, Peter Mesker, Dian Fluijt, Edwin van der Zande, Anouk Zuurmond, Jeannette den Ouden, Pim Klamer, Koen Wessels, Saro Lozano Parra, Robert Mentink, Anita Emans, Eline Belgraver, Marije Verkerk, Mathilde Tempelman-Lam, Nicolina Montessori, Ina ter Avest, Remco Coppoolse en Margreeth Kloppenburg
Op zoek naar de ziel van de professional: Levensbeschouwelijke vorming in beroepsopleiding en professionalisering
No full textOverzichtsuitgave bij het 10-jarig bestaan van de gecombineerde onderzoeksgroep LEVO/NP, bestaande uit de leerstoelgroep Levensbeschouwelijke Vorming aan de Universiteit Utrecht (UU) en het lectoraat Normatieve Professionalisering aan de Hogeschool Utrecht (HU).
Met bijdragen van: Cok Bakker, Bram de Muynck, Inge Versteegt, Bas van den Berg, Elsbeth Vogel, Anne-Marije de Bruin-Wassinkmaat, George Lengkeek, Gertie Blaauwendraad, Peter Mesker, Dian Fluijt, Edwin van der Zande, Anouk Zuurmond, Jeannette den Ouden, Pim Klamer, Koen Wessels, Saro Lozano Parra, Robert Mentink, Anita Emans, Eline Belgraver, Marije Verkerk, Mathilde Tempelman-Lam, Nicolina Montessori, Ina ter Avest, Remco Coppoolse en Margreeth Kloppenburg
Op zoek naar de ziel van de professional: Levensbeschouwelijke vorming in beroepsopleiding en professionalisering
No full textOverzichtsuitgave bij het 10-jarig bestaan van de gecombineerde onderzoeksgroep LEVO/NP, bestaande uit de leerstoelgroep Levensbeschouwelijke Vorming aan de Universiteit Utrecht (UU) en het lectoraat Normatieve Professionalisering aan de Hogeschool Utrecht (HU). Met bijdragen van: Cok Bakker, Bram de Muynck, Inge Versteegt, Bas van den Berg, Elsbeth Vogel, Anne-Marije de Bruin-Wassinkmaat, George Lengkeek, Gertie Blaauwendraad, Peter Mesker, Dian Fluijt, Edwin van der Zande, Anouk Zuurmond, Jeannette den Ouden, Pim Klamer, Koen Wessels, Saro Lozano Parra, Robert Mentink, Anita Emans, Eline Belgraver, Marije Verkerk, Mathilde Tempelman-Lam, Nicolina Montessori, Ina ter Avest, Remco Coppoolse en Margreeth Kloppenburg
Archeologie in musea: een passend verleden voor de Sami?
No full textA Sami past.
The Sami are still struggling for general acceptance of their identity and cultural expression. They are the indigenous population of Fennoscandia, and although now mostly associated with reindeer herding, historically their subsistence was based mostly on fishing, hunting, agriculture, animal husbandry, and only small-scale reindeer herding. In this paper it is probed how contemporary majority and Sami museums convey information about the Sami and their past, with a special focus on the role of archaeology. This is important because museums have an active role in the creation of knowledge and identity. There are several discrepancies between what archaeology is and can present, and how the Sami see their culture and past. Archaeology works with linear time, and focuses on material culture that is, landscape-wise, taken out of context. By contrast, Sami culture emphasizes the importance of material culture within the landscape, feels affiliated with circular time and nature, and does not accept all material culture that archaeology classifies as Sami. In the case of the Sami, archaeology is a less-than-ideal way to communicate about their past and culture
Reindeer (Rangifer tarandus) castration in Fennoscandia: Domestication theory, archaeological methods, and interpretive perspectives
No full textAbstract
The traditional practice of reindeer castration is an integral component of all known past and present reindeer herding cultures. It has likely played an essential role in the reindeer domestication process, making it relevant for understanding initial and subsequent human-reindeer interactions beyond hunter-prey relationships. This paper presents data on the Traditional Knowledge of reindeer castration among Sámi and Finnish reindeer herders in Finland and explores human-reindeer relations through this practice, providing a tentative interpretative framework and a multi-voiced perspective on current, historical and archaeological narratives of reindeer herding. Based on the effects of castration on bone and antler growth, it proposes osteological methods to detect castration in the archaeological record. Lastly, the paper integrates Traditional Knowledge of castration with domestication theory, arguing that castration is a key element in reindeer domestication. Firstly, castration seems indispensable for the keeping of reindeer for working purposes. Secondly, the keeping of working reindeer is fundamental to (the development of) reindeer pastoralism. Thirdly, this paper shows that castration is an essential feature of pastoralism beyond the use of working reindeer. It is discussed how castration can be seen as a form of holistic care through relations like domination, subjugation, mediation, growth, respect and partnership.Abstract
The traditional practice of reindeer castration is an integral component of all known past and present reindeer herding cultures. It has likely played an essential role in the reindeer domestication process, making it relevant for understanding initial and subsequent human-reindeer interactions beyond hunter-prey relationships. This paper presents data on the Traditional Knowledge of reindeer castration among Sámi and Finnish reindeer herders in Finland and explores human-reindeer relations through this practice, providing a tentative interpretative framework and a multi-voiced perspective on current, historical and archaeological narratives of reindeer herding. Based on the effects of castration on bone and antler growth, it proposes osteological methods to detect castration in the archaeological record. Lastly, the paper integrates Traditional Knowledge of castration with domestication theory, arguing that castration is a key element in reindeer domestication. Firstly, castration seems indispensable for the keeping of reindeer for working purposes. Secondly, the keeping of working reindeer is fundamental to (the development of) reindeer pastoralism. Thirdly, this paper shows that castration is an essential feature of pastoralism beyond the use of working reindeer. It is discussed how castration can be seen as a form of holistic care through relations like domination, subjugation, mediation, growth, respect and partnership
The osteometric identification of castrated reindeer (Rangifer tarandus) and the significance of castration in tracing human-animal relationships in the North
No full textReindeer are the only domestic cervid and have formed the cosmologies and practical daily lives of numerous peoples in the Northern Hemisphere for thousands of years. The questions of when, how, and where reindeer domestication originated and how it developed remain one of the scientific enigmas of our time. The practice of reindeer castration is an essential feature of all communities practicing reindeer herding today. It has probably been one of the most important interventions in the reindeer’s life cycle and biology that marked the start of domesticating human-reindeer relationships long ago. Castration is and has been essential for reindeer taming, control, training, herd management, and ritual practices. Unsuitably, to this present day, there are no methods zooarchaeologists can employ to distinguish a reindeer gelding from a reindeer bull in the archaeological record. In this current paper, we outline a new method that presents the possibility of differentiating between full males, castrated males, and females based on osteometric features. We measured the leg bones and pelvis of the complete or partial skeletons of 97 adult modern domestic reindeer individuals to determine the precise effects castration has on skeletal size and morphology. We explored our osteometric dataset with different statistical methods. We found a clear separation of the two male groups in the radioulna, humerus, and femur but in the tibia and metapodials to a lesser extent. Osteometric depth and width were generally more affected than the longitudinal axis. Females were easily distinguishable from castrates and full males based on nearly every bone measurement. Our analysis shows that reindeer castration can be proven through osteometric analysis. SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION: The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s12520-022-01696-y
Osteometric distinctions between domestic reindeer (Rangifer tarandus tarandus), wild mountain reindeer (R.t.t.), wild forest reindeer (R.t. fennicus), and the identification of castrated reindeer bones: Biometric explorations and archaeological methods
No full textAbstract
The types of reindeer hunting, keeping, and herding in Fennoscandia have seen different periods of transformations and have found unique side by side expressions through time. To refine zooarchaeological analysis and scrutinize reindeer domestication and other past ancient human-reindeer relationships in the North, we propose methods for identifying sex, castration status, and ecotype/variety from complete and fragmented reindeer bones. This study examines the leg bones and pelvises of 161 reindeer from the Fennoscandian domestic reindeer (Rangifer tarandus tarandus), Norwegian wild mountain reindeer (Rangifer tarandus tarandus) and Finnish wild forest reindeer (Rangifer tarandus fennicus). We include intact males, castrated males, and females in our study. Ecotype (fennicus versus tarandus), variety (wild versus domestic tarandus), sex, and castration status are shown to influence bone growth in often element- and dimension-dependent ways. We demonstrate that metric variance is highest in fennicus and castrated domestic tarandus. Slenderness as expressed by diaphysis breadth–length index is sex and (albeit less) ecotype dependent, while distal breadth–bone length indices are mostly ecotype dependent. Scatterplots that combine slenderness with other measurement variables result in independent clustering between groups. The combination of two measurement variables facilitates ecotype/variety, sex, and castration status assignment due to independent clustering of groups. Our classification model based on isometric size and shape can be used to differentiate ecotype/variety, but not sex and castration status, due to limitation of group sizes. This study shows that reindeer ecotype, variety, sex, and castration status can be demonstrated through straightforward osteometric methods. We suggest cautious application in archaeological contexts because of (relative) changes in body size of past reindeer populations and our limited sample size, of especially wild male tarandus.Abstract
The types of reindeer hunting, keeping, and herding in Fennoscandia have seen different periods of transformations and have found unique side by side expressions through time. To refine zooarchaeological analysis and scrutinize reindeer domestication and other past ancient human-reindeer relationships in the North, we propose methods for identifying sex, castration status, and ecotype/variety from complete and fragmented reindeer bones. This study examines the leg bones and pelvises of 161 reindeer from the Fennoscandian domestic reindeer (Rangifer tarandus tarandus), Norwegian wild mountain reindeer (Rangifer tarandus tarandus) and Finnish wild forest reindeer (Rangifer tarandus fennicus). We include intact males, castrated males, and females in our study. Ecotype (fennicus versus tarandus), variety (wild versus domestic tarandus), sex, and castration status are shown to influence bone growth in often element- and dimension-dependent ways. We demonstrate that metric variance is highest in fennicus and castrated domestic tarandus. Slenderness as expressed by diaphysis breadth–length index is sex and (albeit less) ecotype dependent, while distal breadth–bone length indices are mostly ecotype dependent. Scatterplots that combine slenderness with other measurement variables result in independent clustering between groups. The combination of two measurement variables facilitates ecotype/variety, sex, and castration status assignment due to independent clustering of groups. Our classification model based on isometric size and shape can be used to differentiate ecotype/variety, but not sex and castration status, due to limitation of group sizes. This study shows that reindeer ecotype, variety, sex, and castration status can be demonstrated through straightforward osteometric methods. We suggest cautious application in archaeological contexts because of (relative) changes in body size of past reindeer populations and our limited sample size, of especially wild male tarandus
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