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The concepts of discerned and designed languages and their relevance for East Africa
Get PDFThis article starts with a dream: the dream that one day, the countries of East Africa will be middle- to high-income countries, with an education system to match that status. What would that mean for the medium of instruction in tertiary education? Using Estonia as a benchmark, and comparing that with data from Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda, I show that in future, it will be impossible to keep English as medium of instruction. Local languages will have to be used. However, how can that be done in a practical way? In order to discuss that, the article introduces the concepts of discerned and designed languages, inspired by the earlier concepts of ‘Abstand’ and ‘Ausbau’ languages as introduced by Heinz Kloss (1967). The concept of discerned languages is a more linguistic concept. The concept of designed languages is more sociological and is similar to that of intellectualized languages. Using these two concepts points to the social and political nature of how languages are classified and to the possibility that one designed language can serve as a formalized language for speakers of a number of related discerned languages. This is of great relevance to East Africa. The article proposes five principles for rational designed language choices. It expands on one of these – the importance of looking at ease of language learning and teaching when making rational choices. The article then ends with a number of policy recommendations, slightly different for each country.Language Use in Past and Presen
Review of Kretzer, M.; Kaschula, R. (2022) Handbook of language policy and education in countries of the Southern African development community (SADC)
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Culture and language: empowering and disempowering ideas
Get PDFThe discussion on decolonising the mind and turning to African indigenous knowledge tends to construct a contradiction between the ‘colonial’ (bad) and the ‘decolonial’ (good), as well as between the ‘foreign’ (bad) and the ‘indigenous’ (good). However, independent African thinkers have never shied away from taking in elements from abroad into their thinking and have always tried to marry the best elements of indigenous and foreign insights. One therefore wonders if the discussion should not be framed differently: as an examination of which ideas can be seen as empowering, in terms of increasing African agency, and which ideas instead can be seen as disempowering, or inhibiting African agency. This chapter discusses a number of such ideas in two key related areas, the areas of culture and language. In the area of culture, it argues in favour of a view of cultures as value systems that serve as common points of reference to a people. It argues that with such a view and the methods of cross-cultural psychology it is possible in principle to chart new developments in the area of culture in Africa and to devise new policies taking those developments into account. In the area of language, the chapter attacks the idea that all 2,000 living languages counted in Africa need to be treated in the same way. It shows that this idea paralyzes the debate and proposes instead a distinction between ‘discerned’ and ‘designed’ languages. It proposes five principles that would enable increased use of a limited number of African languages in more and more domains. Descriptive and Comparative Linguistic
Botswana as a decolonial bastion in Africa
Get PDFThis paper follows the analysis of Vansina in analyzing colonization as an attempt to destroy and replace Africa’s autonomous cultural systems. It shows that in Botswana, this has been only partially successful. Due to clever forms of resistance,Botswana has been able to keep part of its autonomy intact. This helps to explain the relative success the country has had. However, in the educational field, the country is now also one of the first to be confronted with the limitations that are inherent in the colonial education system. The paperargues that a gradual transition to using indigenous languages as a medium of instruction is practically possible and will become inescapable if the country wishes to reach the goals it has set for itself. In this, special attentionis needed for the speakers of Khoisan languages.Language Use in Past and Presen
Language of instruction in education in Africa: how new questions help generate new answers
Get PDFThis paper reviews the major arguments used over the years in favour of mother-tongue instruction in Africa. It analyses the reasons that have been given for the lack of progress made. It suggests that the current Western paradigms obstruct a view of current and expected developments in this area. It offers a new analysis, based on the evolution of enrolment rates in education. The paper argues that in the next decade or so, a transition to using African languages more at all levels of education will become unavoidable.Language Use in Past and Presen
Language and education in Africa: a fresh approach to the debates on language, education, and cultural identity
Get PDFThis book starts with Vansina, who holds that old cultural traditions in Africa have been destroyed, but that new ones are emerging. With Prah, the study argues that a key role is played by education, which has to be based on African languages and values. Using a new quantitative comparative analysis, the study shows that maintaining former colonial languages as medium of instruction will become impossible to sustain. Over the next decade, some African countries will have to transition to African languages. The issue of language choice has vexed researchers and policymakers. The study shows how all over the world, designed languages serve speakers of several discerned languages. This solution could also be used in Africa, as demonstrated through six brief case studies. African languages in education will bolster the new, decolonised cultural traditions already taking shape on the continent.ASC – Publicaties niet-programma gebonde
Language, education and identity in Africa
Get PDFWhy has Africa not been doing so well and what is the way forward? This book starts with the analysis of Vansina and Prah: the old cultural traditions in Africa have been destroyed in colonial times; new ones are currently taking shape, based in part in African languages. The book uses cross-cultural psychology to show that such new cultural traditions are indeed forming in Africa. However, almost all African countries currently use a former colonial language in secondary and higher education. The book demonstrates that if more and more people get educated, this system will no longer scale. Over the next decade, more and more African countries will have to make a transition towards increased use of African languages. The book proposes a distinction between discerned and designed languages. All over the world, designed languages are made to serve speakers of several discerned languages. This could and should happen in Africa as well. The book contains a number of brief case studies, showing how in fact such a transition is practically possible. In future, African countries will be able to achieve success in their educational systems by using a small number of languages as medium of instruction. Such a transition will also help to form the new cultural traditions that are already taking shape on the continent. Descriptive and Comparative Linguistic
National Culture and Africa Revisited: Ethnolinguistic Group Data from 35 African Countries
Get PDFAfrica is a continent of considerable cultural diversity. This diversity does not necessarily run in parallel to the national boundaries that were created in Africa in the colonial period. However, decades of nation building in Africa must have made their mark. Is it possible nowadays to distinguish national cultures in Africa, or are the traditional ethnolinguistic distinctions more important? This article uses an approach developed in cross-cultural psychology to examine these questions. In 2012, Minkov and Hofstede published an article in this journal analyzing World Values Survey data from seven countries in Sub-Saharan Africa at the level of subnational administrative regions. They argued that national culture is also a meaningful concept in this region. This study reexamines the matter. It uses an innovative approach, looking at ethnolinguistic groups instead of at administrative regions and using the much more extensive Afrobarometer survey data set. It finds that although the Minkov/Hofstede study still has merit, the picture is more nuanced in several important ways. There is not one pattern that adequately describes the situation in the whole of Africa.Descriptive and Comparative Linguistic
Is Iraqw an easy language to learn?
No full textThis chapter argues that as soon as large sections of the population are expected to follow education in a language that is not their first language, ease of language learning becomes a relevant consideration. This is now the case in Africa. But is it possible to be more precise in assessing ease or difficulty of language learning? In order to discuss that, the chapter looks at levels of language learning and proposes a new way to approximate the ease or difficulty of language learning for specific combinations of languages. In order to do that, it develops an innovative way of using the Automated Similarity Judgement Program (ASJP) and its associated database. This is done by benchmarking it to a US government scheme for determining ease or difficulty of language learning for specific language pairs. The chapter argues why there is a wider relevance to such a scheme: in Tanzania as well as in other parts of the world, educational systems are increasingly entrusted with the task of teaching large sections of the population a second or third language. However, what can we expect an educational system to achieve? This is discussed in the context of Iraqw and the Tanzanian educational situation and leads to a number of recommendations that are relevant for the Tanzanian situation. The chapter ends with a summary and some last conclusions
Multilingualism and multiculturalism: why Africa is different
Get PDFThis chapter examines specifics of African contexts relevant for teaching in multilingual and multicultural environments. It starts with basics, pointing to a toxic cocktail of ideas that may have value in the North, but is counterproductive in Africa. Thus, it examines ideas of ‘language’ as applied to Africa proposing to distinguish between discerned and designed languages. If participation in education increases a tran-sition to using a limited number of designed languages as medium of instruction will become necessary and possible. This will overcome the current diglossic situation dominated by former colonial languages. On culture, the chapter proposes a non-essentialist definition. Recent research shows that the old ‘tribal’ categories have lost their meaning in many (though not all) parts of Africa. An appreciation is needed of the new cultural traditions that are emerging on the continent. Understanding Africa’s specificity will lead to a new research agenda and to new ideas on what teaching and learning in Africa’s multilingual and multicultural environments mean.Descriptive and Comparative Linguistic
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