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The attentional blink: a structural or strategic limitation of the attentional system?
Get PDFThe Attentional Blink could be considered as a blind spot in perceptual awareness. This phenomenon results in a marked difficulty to identify the second of two sequential targets, that are presented in a close temporal contiguity, when these are embedded in a Rapid Serial Visual Presentation stream of distractors. The critical temporal window duration of this effect (within 200-600 ms after the presentation of the first target) depends on the time needed from the central processing of the first target. It is interesting to underly that when the temporal interval between the targets is equal to, or shorter then, 100 ms, the Attentional Blink disappears, namely the second target is identified without impairment. This effect is known as Lag-1 sparing in the sense that the second target results spared from the Attentional Blink. Crucial to the present research is the aim to investigate the role of the nature of processing carried out on targets in the Lag-1 sparing phenomenon. In a first series of experiments, 0, 1, or 2 digits (and in one case 0, 1, 2 letters) were embedded with equal probability in Rapid Serial Visual Presentation streams of letter distractors (and in one case in streams of digit distractors). In two experiments (i.e., the first and the third) participants were asked to identify the digits in some blocks of trials and to count the digits in others blocks. In one experiment (i.e., the second) the target to identify or counting were letters and the digits were distractors. In one experiment (i.e., the fourth) the counting task was replaced with a digit-sum task. In the last experiment (i.e., the fifth) the counting task was replaced by a counting task of the digits of a given parity sub-class (odd vs. even digits). Lag-1 sparing was always evident when the participants when the task was the explicit identification of the target digits. Lag-1 sparing was evident when participants were required to sum 2 digits or to count digits of a prespecified parity subclass (e.g., count just even digits). The effect was abolished when participants were asked to count the digits independent on their parity subclass. These results suggest that the occurrence of Lag-1 sparing depends on the type of mental representation that have to be generated on the basis of the target and task information. A numbers of researchers have emphatized the role of distractors intervening between successive targets as the primary determinant of the Attentional Blink. These authors argued that this phenomenon is abolished when 3 or more targets are displayed in a condition of contiguity in rapidly presented serial sequences. In a second series of experiments the present investigation delves deeper into the Lag-1 sparing issue. A multi-targets Rapid Serial Visual Presentation paradigm was employed in which 1-, 2-, 3- digit targets were embedded among letter distractors. Across the series of three experiments both, the numbers of presented targets and the temporal lag between them were manipulated. Evidence of an Attentional Blink was found in each experiment, namely targets that followed the first one in these sequences presented an impairment in the identification task, when the probability of a given target report was condizionalized on a correct response to the preceding targets. These results support and reinforce the notion that some form of capacity limitation in the encoding of targets plays a fundamental role in the elicitation and modulation of the Attentional Blink effect.Il fenomeno Attentional Blink puo' essere considerato un punto debole nella consapevolezza percettiva. Tale effetto si configura come una marcata difficolta' nell'identificazione del secondo, di due stimoli target, quando questi vengono presentati in stretta contiguita' temporale, inseriti all'interno di una serie di stimoli distrattori in un paradigma sperimentale di Presentazione Visiva Seriale Rapida. La finestra temporale critica di questo fenomeno (compresa tra 200-600 ms dopo la presentazione del primo stimolo target) dipende dall'intervallo temporale richiesto al processo di elaborazione del primo stimolo target. E' interessante sottolineare che quando l'intervallo temporale tra i due stimoli target e' uguale, o inferiore, a 100 ms, l'attentional blink scompare, il risultato e' che il secondo stimolo target viene identificato correttamente. Questo effetto e' noto come Lag-1 sparing, da interpretare in questo senso, che il secondo target risulta preservato dall'Attentional Blink. Cruciale per la presente ricerca e' il proposito di investigare il ruolo della natura dell'elaborazione che viene condotta sugli stimoli targets, all'interno del fenomeno Lag-1 sparing. In una prima serie di esperimenti 0, 1, oppure due cifre target (e in un caso 0, 1, 2 lettere) venivano inserite con la medesima probabilita' all'interno di stringhe di Presentazione Visiva Seriale Rapida di lettere impiegate come distrattori (e in un caso all'interno di stringhe di cifre come distrattori). In due esperimenti (rispettivamente, il primo e il terzo) i partecipanti dovevano identificare i numeri in alcuni blocchi di prove e contare il numero di cifre in altri blocchi di prove. In un esperimento (il secondo) gli stimoli targets erano lettere, da identificare o contare, e gli stimoli distrattori erano cifre. In un esperimento (il quarto) il compito di conteggio era sostituito da un compito di somma delle cifre. Nell'ultimo esperimento (il quinto) il comptito di conteggio era sostituito da un compito di conteggio di una data sotto-classe di uguaglianza (cifre pari vs. cifre dispari). Il Lag-1 sparing era sempre presente nelle condizioni in cui ai partecipanti veniva chiesto esplicitamente di identificare le cifre. Il Lag-1 sparing era evidente quando i partecipanti dovevano sommare le due cifre o contare le cifre di una sotto-classe prespecificata (es., contare unicamente le cifre pari). L'effetto era abolito quando i partecipanti dovevano contare le cifre in modo indipendente dalla loro stessa sotto-classe. Tali risultati suggeriscono che la presenza del Lag-1 sparing dipende dalla tipologia di rappresentazione mentale che e' stata generata sulla base delle informazione proveniente dallo stimolo target e dal compito richiesto. Alcuni ricercatori hanno enfatizzato il ruolo dei distrattori, che intervengono tra due stimoli target successivi, come determinante primaria dell'Attentional Blink. Questi autori sostengono che tale fenomeno sia abolito quando 3 o piu' targets sono presentati in condizione di contiguita' all'interno di sequenze di stimoli distrattori presentate rapidamente. In una seconda serie di tre esperimenti la presente investigazione approfondisce in dettaglio la problematica Lag-1 sparing. E' stato impiegato un paradigma di Presentazione Visiva Serial Rapida con 1-, 2-, 3- cifre (stimoli target) inseriti all'interno di una serie di lettere (stimoli distrattori). Attraverso la serie di esperimenti sono stati manipolati sia il numero di stimoli target presentati sia l'intervallo temporale di presentazione di questi ultimi. La presenza di un Attentional Blink e' stata riscontrata in ciascun esperimento, gli stimoli targets che seguivano temporalmente il primo stimolo target, all'interno delle sequenze di stimoli, presentavano un prestazione deficitaria nel compito di identificazione, quando la probabilita' di un dato stimolo target era condizionata ad una corretta identificazione dei precedenti stimoli target. Tali risultati sostengono e rinforzano la nozione secondo cui alcune forme di limitazione a livello delle risorse di codifica degli stimoli target giocano un ruolo fondamentale nell'elicitare e nel modulare l'effetto di Attentional Blink
Learning to Integrate Text and Picture in Processing Illustrated Science Texts through Eye-Movement Modeling
No full textThis study used eye movement modeling examples (EMME) to extend current research on processing and learning from illustrated science text. Seventy-three seventh graders were randomly assigned to the modeling and non-modeling conditions to investigate whether (1) those with the opportunity to observe a model’s eye movements while reading an illustrated text, show greater integrative processing in their own reading and (2) learn more from text.
Findings reveal that the students who observed the model’s visual behavior showed greater integrative processing of text and picture. They made more transitions from one representation to the other and strategically spent longer reinspecting the picture while rereading the text. These students also outperformed those in the control condition in the transfer of knowledge task
Examining the Effects of Picture Labeling on Science Text Processing and Learning: An Eye-Fixation Analysis
No full textThis study examined whether (1) reading a science text with a labeled picture is more effective than reading a text with an unlabeled picture and a non-illustrated text; (2) the text with the labeled picture induces different cognitive processing, as revealed by eye movements; (3) online cognitive processing is related to offline learning.
Fifty-nine sixth graders were randomly assigned to a reading condition in a pre, immediate, and delayed posttest design. Findings reveal the superiority of the text with the labeled picture in the transfer task. Eye-movement analyses show that readers in this condition integrate more verbal and pictorial information, as revealed by the fine-grained index of look-from fixation time. Finally, look-from fixation time during online processing predicted offline transfer
Improving Text and Picture Integration during Reading through Eye-Movement Modeling
No full textSuccessful learning from illustrated text requires integrating information provided by the text and pictures. To extend current research, this study used eye movement modeling examples (EMME) in the school context to model the crucial integrative processing of text and graphics and examine the effects of this modeling on processing and learning outcomes. Forty-two 7th graders participated in the study, randomly assigned to the experimental (EMME) or control condition. Before the learning episode, each participant in the EMME condition individually observed a replay (video) of a model’s eye movements while reading an illustrated science text on a topic (water cycle) different from that of the learning episode (food chain). Based on the theoretical assumption of a successful reading strategy, the visual behavior of the model replay emphasized the integrative processing of text and picture. Results revealed that students who observed the eye-movements of the model replay, showed more strategic, integrative rereading of the learning material than the control students. Specifically, EMME students spent more time attending the illustration while rereading corresponding text segments. In addition, they backtracked longer the corresponding and non-corresponding text segments while reinspecting the illustration. Furthermore, EMME students outperformed the control students in less and deeper learning tasks, such as verbal recall, graphical recall, and transfer of knowledge. We conclude that eye-tracking methodology is not only a research tool but also an instruction tool that can be effectively used to model students’ reading behavior in the school context
Using eye-tracking technology as an indirect instruction tool to improve text and picture processing and learning
No full textThis study used an eye-movement modelling example (EMME) in the school context to corroborate and extend recent findings about the educational potential of eye-tracking technology for supporting strategic processing and learning from an illustrated text. Sixty-four seventh graders were randomly assigned to the modelling and non-modelling conditions to investigate whether (1) those with the opportunity to observe a model’s eye movements while reading an illustrated text, show greater integrative processing in their own reading and (2) they learn more deeply from text. Findings reveal that the students who observed the model’s visual behaviour showed greater integrative processing of text and picture. They made more transitions from one representation to the other and strategically spent longer re-inspecting the picture while re-reading the text and vice versa. These students also outperformed those in the non-modelling condition for deeper learning as revealed in the transfer of knowledge task. Moreover, students with lower reading comprehension skills benefitted more from observing the model’s gaze replay when considering both the acquisition and transfer of knowledge
Eye-Movement Modeling of Integrative Reading of an Illustrated Text: Effects on Processing and Learning
No full textIntegrative processing of verbal and graphical information is crucial when students read an illustrated text to learn from it. This study examines the potential of a novel approach to support the processing of text and graphics. We used eye movement modeling example (EMME) in the school context to model students’ integrative processes of verbal and pictorial information by replaying a model’s gazes while reading an illustrated text on a topic different from that of the learning episode. Forty-two 7th graders were randomly assigned to an experimental (EMME) or a control condition (No-EMME) and were asked to read an illustrated science text about the food chain. Online measures of text processing and offline measures of reading outcomes were used. Eye-movement indices indicated that students in the EMME condition showed more integrative processing than students in the No-EMME condition. They also performed better than the latter in the verbal and graphical recall, and in the transfer task. Finally, the relationship between the duration of reprocessing the graphical segments while rereading the correspondent verbal segments and transfer performance was stronger in the EMME condition, after controlling for the individual differences of prior knowledge, reading comprehension, and achievement in science. Overall, the findings suggest the potential of eye-tracking methodology as an instruction tool
Integrazione di informazioni verbali e grafiche nell’elaborazione e comprensione concettuale di un testo scientifico illustrato: Evidenze dai pattern dei movimenti oculari
No full textL’obiettivo di questo studio è di esaminare se sia l’integrazione di informazioni verbali e grafiche, che può emergere da un’analisi dei pattern di comportamento oculare, ad essere associata ad una migliore comprensione concettuale del testo
Source Authoritativeness and Patterns of Eye Movement during Webpage Reading
No full textLearners should be able to evaluate the credibility of websites and the veracity of their content to follow up only accurate and supported information. This study aimed to investigate whether attention on the same information is allocated differently according to the authoritativeness of a webpage, and whether individual characteristics of topic-specific prior knowledge and epistemic beliefs moderate this process. We used eye-tracking methodology that provides fine-grained data about the amount of visual attention devoted to the same information offered by different sources, both in a quick, automated way and in a delayed, deliberate way. Thirty-nine undergraduates read four authentic webpages, comprising five types of information: URL, text 1, text 2, picture 1, and picture 2, which provided verbal and graphical information about the universal validity of the central dogma of molecular biology. The webpages were situated on a continuum from the most to the least authoritative: institutional, encyclopedic, popular, and alternative. Findings indicated implicit source evaluation, as revealed by more automatic (first-pass fixation times) and delayed processing (second-pass fixation times), which varied according to source reliability. In the first-pass, greater attention was dedicated to the more familiar information within the most credible page. Readers also integrated more words and graphical elements when processing the information in the highly authoritative source during the second-pass reading. Data on individual characteristics “validate”, to some extent, data regarding the patterns of eye movement. In addition, crucial positive relations between integrative eye-movement patterns and web-based learning also emerged
Reading information about a scientific phenomenon on webpages varying for reliability: An eye-movement analysis
No full textStudents search the Web every day for many purposes, one of which is to search information for academic assignments. Given the huge amount of easily accessible online information, they are required to develop new reading skills and become more able to effectively evaluate the reliability of web sources. This study investigates the distribution of their visual attention while reading webpages using eye-tracking methodology. The aim was to examine whether information received differential attention depending on the reliability of the source and whether the individual characteristics of topic-specific prior knowledge and epistemic beliefs moderated their visual behavior during reading. Factual knowledge after reading was also examined. Forty-nine university students read four webpages providing verbal and graphical information about the universal validity of the central dogma of molecular biology, which varied for reliability. Indices of first-pass and second pass reading or inspection were used to trace the processing of information within each page. Findings revealed that readers made an implicit source evaluation as they spent a longer time inspecting the pictures about the more and less familiar information within the most reliable source during the immediate, more automatic, processing. In addition, topic-specific epistemic beliefs moderated this processing as readers with more availing convictions about knowledge attended more the information provided in pages that required more discernment. Moreover, readers increased their factual knowledge of the topic after reading. Educational implications are outlined
Integrative Processing of Verbal and Graphical Information During Re-reading Predicts Learning from Illustrated Text: An Eye-Movement Study
Get PDFPrinted or digital textbooks contain texts accompanied by various kinds of visualisation. Successful comprehension of these materials requires integrating verbal and graphical information. This study investigates the time course of processing an illustrated text through eye-tracking methodology in the school context. The aims were to identify patterns of first- and second-pass reading and to examine whether the integrative processing of text and picture during the less automatic and more purposeful second-pass reading predicts learning, after controlling for reading comprehension, prior knowledge, and self-concept. Forty-three 7th graders read an illustrated science text while their eye-movements were recorded. A cluster analysis revealed two processing patterns during the first-pass reading, which differed for the time spent on the main concepts in the text and picture. During re-reading, two patterns of stronger and weaker integrative processing emerged. Integration of verbal and graphical information was revealed by the frequency of second-pass transitions from text to picture and from picture to text, and the duration of picture re-inspecting while re-reading text information (look-from text to picture) and re-reading text information while re-inspecting the visualised information (look-from picture to text). A series of hierarchical regression analyses indicated that only the patterns of integrative processing during the second-pass reading uniquely predict verbal and graphical recalls, and the transfer of knowledge. The study provides evidence that the delayed processing which integrates text and graphics contributes to text retention and the application of newly learned knowledge, over and above individual characteristics. The educational significance is outlined
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