9 research outputs found
The impact of auditors’ workload on audit quality: case of BDO Zimbabwe chartered accountants
No full textThis research study was undertaken to deduce the impact of auditors’ workload on audit quality at BDO Zimbabwe Chartered Accountants. The researcher observed that audits performed under high workload pressures are more likely to be of lower quality which triggered the need for this research. The research therefore aimed to ascertain audit quality measurements, determine factors which contributes towards auditors’ workloads and in turn applicable measures to manage these workloads. Also targeted by the research was the relationship between auditor’s workload and audit quality before concluding with pertinent practices on workloads to ensure quality audit. A descriptive research design was embraced in this study incorporating both the qualitative and quantitative approaches so that they could complement each other in determining the impact of auditors’ workload on audit quality. The researcher found out that audit quality is compromised under workload compression conditions which are high during the first quarter of the year. Aggregated STATA 11 results showed that a single unit change in auditors’ workload will negatively affect audit quality by approximately 31.80%. The researcher rolled down the curtain by recommending that BDO Zimbabwe may develop a proper workload management policy to manage audit workload simultaneously defining audit team development
Modern/charismatic Pentecostalism as a form of ‘religious’ secularisation in Africa
No full textThis paper argues that although Pentecostalism seems to be reviving Christianity in Africa, judging by the number of people attracted to this brand of Christianity, there is an extent to which its practices and beliefs are secular. Perhaps it is this ‘secularisation’ that remains a pull factor of this kind of Christianity. To do so, the paper begins with a brief review of the secularisation theory, reaching a conclusion that secularisation involves people’s concern with proximate (this worldly) issues rather than ultimate (post-mortem) issues. With this understanding of secularisation, the paper then discusses beliefs and practices of charismatic Pentecostal churches that this author believes make Pentecostalism a form of ‘religious’ secularisation. The focus will specifically be on Zimbabwean charismatic Pentecostal leaders’ discourses of wealth and health
No. 25: Zimbabweans Who Move: Perspectives on International Migration in Zimbabwe
No full textThe movement of people across political boundaries has generated considerable debate in Southern Africa. There is a compelling need for Southern African countries to harmonise regional migration policies and to ensure the freer movement of people across the region. However, it must be noted that disparities in levels of development are still evident in the economies of the region. There are fears in countries such as South Africa and Botswana that the freer movement of people will flood them with migrants from the less developed countries. There are also concerns in all the countries of SADC that freer movement will not be well received by citizens, leading to intolerance and xenophobia.
As Southern Africa moves towards a more globalised future, there is need for African governments to have the best information on which to make policy decisions. Migration policy is not static but undergoes constant modification as a country’s experiences with and perceptions of migrants change. Immigration policy is often a divisive issue on domestic political agendas. In times of economic recession, immigrants are unjustifiably blamed for high unemployment rates, increasing crime, and land and housing shortages. Politicians often give high priority to migration issues, sometimes alienating ethnic groups and substantially affecting immigration programmes. Immigrantsin pursuit of work have often become pariah citizens in a global order in which, paradoxically, old borders are rapidly dissolving.
Rising xenophobia and violence against foreigners are sobering and sad reminders of the negative effects of globalisation. National governments have also been blamed for fuelling xenophobia by perpetuating stereotypes against foreigners, describing them as a ‘flood’ and stereotyping them as criminals. Invariably the way the government treats foreigners also determines the attitude of the local population towards the foreigner. This has also set the tone for a negative representation of foreigners in local newspapers. For example, it has been shown that antiimmigrant sentiments are widespread in South African print media which can also have an impact on the way the local population view foreigners. This has also set the tone for a negative representation of foreigners by officials in local media.
The Southern African Migration Project (SAMP) conducts basic research for policy-making on the dynamics of international migration to and within the SADC region. SAMP maintains that a well-informed policy- maker or migration manager is more likely to appreciate the viability of different policy choices and to develop policies that are workable, democratic and consistent with principles of good governance and regional cooperation. Policies based on outdated or misleading information will not only fail but have damaging consequences. From a human rights standpoint, such decisions could violate constitutional guarantees and exacerbate hostility towards non-citizens.
SAMP is also committed to conducting such research at a regional scale. Research results from one country, such as Zimbabwe, can be compared with those from the other SADC states. This helps to highlight similarities and differences in national migration regimes but also helps define areas of potential cooperation and harmonization between states. SAMP therefore believes that the collection of reliable and accurate data on the dimensions, causes, impacts and trends in migration is an essential first step. Only then can there be informed debate and movement forward on regional harmonization.
Within the Southern African region, Zimbabwe’s migration history is unusual. Historically, countries were either recipient or sending countries for migrants. Zimbabwe was always in the unusual position of being both. Over the years, many Zimbabweans went to work, primarily in South Africa. SAMP research shows, for example, that almost a quarter of adult Zimbabweans have parents and grandparents who have worked in South Africa at some point in their lives. On the other hand, Zimbabwe was a recipient of labour migrants from countries such as Zambia, Malawi and Mozambique. At the time of the 1951 census, there were 246,000 foreign Africans in Zimbabwe (40% of them from Mozambique). Zimbabwe was a source, a destination and a corridor.
Since independence, Zimbabwe has experienced considerable shifts in the inherited colonial migration pattern: Internal rural-urban migration and urbanization has increased dramatically, although the true extent of this trend will not be evident until the results of the latest census are available. Zimbabwe has become a far more significant exporter of migrant labour as economic conditions in Zimbabwe have deteriorated. Zimbabwe, unlike Mozambique and the BLS countries, has no international bilateral treaty facilitating such movements. As a result, there are only limited opportunities for Zimbabweans to work legally in South Africa. Significant undocumented migration began in the late 1980s and has increased ever since. Zimbabwe is no longer a major recipient of migrant labour except, perhaps, along the border with Mozambique. The volume of ordinary cross-border traffic between Zimbabwe and its neighbours has escalated dramatically over the last decade. Many more Zimbabweans are looking outside the country for the means of livelihood. In a 1997 SAMP survey, Zimbabweans were asked the purpose of their last visit to South Africa. Over 70% had an economic purpose for migrating with 29% going to work or look for work and 42% going to trade or to shop.
Documentation and analysis of these trends and their importance for policy-makers has been relatively limited. As a result, in 1996 the Southern African Migration Project (SAMP) entered into a partnership with the Department of Geography at the University of Zimbabwe to generate the research data that is urgently needed. This publication presents some of the results of that partnership.
The first chapter provides a general overview of post-independence migration to and from Zimbabwe based on official and other published information sources. The author, Professor Lovemore Zinyama, begins by pointing out that Zimbabweans are a nation of migrants although international migration accounts for only a very small proportion of the total Zimbabwean population movements in any one year. Less than 5% of the total population is estimated to be non-Zimbabwean. In terms of immigration to Zimbabwe, Zinyama notes the shift in sources from Britain and the rest of Europe during the colonial era, to a much wider global catchment dominated by the African continent after independence. A second major shift has been in government policy away from active encouragement of permanent residence to the granting of timelimited residence and employment permits to expatriates. These trends are well documented although both have slowed in the late 1990s. Zimbabwe has also continued to be a recipient of undocumented migrants from its neighbours.
The main shift identified by Zinyama is in patterns of migration from the country. Zimbabwe has become a significant brain exporter. The process has occurred in two waves; immediately after independence when skilled whites fled south and more recently, in the 1990s, with growing numbers of black Zimbabweans leaving in search of other pastures. The latter process has in some sense been slowed by the post- 1994 hostility of the South African government towards skilled immigrants from Africa. However, skilled Zimbabweans are now globally marketable and are leaving the country in growing numbers. The 2001 SAMP survey reported by Dr Dan Tevera in Chapter 3 asked a sample of urban Zimbabweans how much consideration they had given to leaving Zimbabwe. Seventy six percent of the respondents reported having considered leaving Zimbabwe, a sign of the times perhaps. The Zimbabwean brain drain is the subject of a forthcoming SAMP policy paper.
Parallel with a growth in cross-border informal trading, there are indications that undocumented and unauthorized cross-border migration from Zimbabwe into neighbouring countries has increased markedly since the 1980s. Zinyama identifies two categories of undocumented migrant. The first are Zimbabweans who enter neighbouring countries, mostly Botswana and South Africa, through official exit ports, but then over-stay. The second category comprises those who leave Zimbabwe without valid travel documents and do not use official exit points. This includes individual “border hoppers” and those relying on trafficking syndicates. The numbers are impossible to ascertain with any degree of accuracy although surveys can and do provide important insights into the intentions, behaviours and strategies of the migrants.
The second chapter in this publication provides important verification of this claim. As the author points out, the types, patterns, causes and impacts of the various forms of regional cross-border migration are complex and little understood. For instance, little is known as yet about who travels outside the country, why and how often. A great deal more is now known because of a SAMP public opinion survey amongst migrants conducted in 5 Southern African countries. The results of that regional survey have been exhaustively detailed and analysed in other SAMP publications. Here we include a paper by Lovemore Zinyama which focuses on the migration behaviour of Zimbabweans, as revealed in their answers to the standardized survey.
Zinyama argues that in the last decade there has been a qualitative shift in the nature of migration between South Africa and Zimbabwe, accompanying changes in the political and economic conditions of both countries. Migration of young single men for work has continued and even grown. But economic crisis and decline in Zimbabwe have prompted a diversification of household survival strategies. Cross-border migration has become one in a basket of such strategies for many. Formerly, only young single men would migrate for economic reasons. Now growing numbers of women have joined the migration stream. Informal cross-border trade has become dominated by women seeking to supplement their family incomes, to clothe and educate their children. Money obtained while in South Africa is used to purchase goods for importation back to Zimbabwe and subsequent resale of those known to be in short supply at home. More recently, female Zimbabwean crossborder traders have been going to Mozambique, Zambia and even as far afield as Tanzania to purchase and bring home second-hand clothing and goods for resale.
The new Zimbabwean migrant is typically a middle-aged family person who uses cross-border migration as one strategy for the survival of her/his family, particularly where this is an urban household. The majority of these people are engaged in a purpose-specific circulatory migration process, but one in which they are only spending very short periods of time in South Africa. In the second chapter, Zinyama provides a detailed demographic and behavioural profile of these new and old migrants from the SAMP survey. In addition, he shows that the migrants have become the target of extreme hostility from South Africans, particularly since 1994. Levels of intolerance are at an alltime high in South Africa, leading to the charge that South Africa is the most xenophobic population in the world. Zimbabweans (and Mozambicans) have been the usual targets of xenophobic sentiment and action on the ground. All Zimbabweans have come to be stereotyped as a social, economic and criminal threat to South Africans. These are clearly stereotypes with little basis in fact or appreciation of the benefits of increased trade and economic interaction between South Africa and Zimbabwe.
Apologists for the xenophobic tendencies of South Africans have argued that South Africans are not unique, that similar views and attitudes are found throughout the SADC. Even if true, this does not exonerate South Africans. It simply means that the task of public and official education is that much greater. SAMP therefore set out to test this hypothesis, and to provide SADC governments with baseline information on their own citizens’ attitudes to migration, immigration and refugees. In 2001, SAMP implemented the National Immigration Policy Survey (NIPS) in five SADC countries, including Zimbabwe. The results of the Zimbabwean NIPS are reported in the third chapter by Dan Tevera.
The survey showed that, in general, ordinary Zimbabweans are more tolerant and welcoming than South Africans, have a greater appreciation of the benefits of migration to their country and have a much more developed understanding of the necessity for refugee protection. However, there is certainly no room for complacency. In the South African case, levels of hostility were high regardless of the race, age, education, economic status or gender of the respondent. In Zimbabwe, marked differences emerged around the variable of economic and employment status.
Of the random sample of urban adults, 38% were engaged in formal employment and 18.5% in informal sector activities. A further 43.2% were unemployed. The answers to questions designed to test attitudes and knowledge consistently broke down along the employed/unemployed divide. They also broke down along the middle-class/poor divide. In other words, Zimbabweans fit the more classical profile in which middle-class, educated and economically-secure people are likely to be more tolerant and accepting of outsiders than the poor and unemployed. This would be a cause for concern given Zimbabwe’s economic crisis and the growth of poverty and unemployment. However, there is little evidence that Zimbabweans explicitly blame migrants and immigrants for this state of affairs (again in stark contrast to South Africans).
Zimbabwean migration patterns are currently in a state of flux. It is commonly assumed that the country’s economic and political conditions over the last decade and more recently are influencing out-migration. However, it would be incorrect to suggest that the correlation is simple or direct. More skilled Zimbabweans are leaving but not all are able to do so and many choose to stay, hoping for a turnaround. The unemployed and retrenched are more restless and mobile and South Africa and Botswana are a definite draw card. However, as the South Africans have yet to appreciate, most are circular migrants and would much prefer that Zimbabweans had the same legal mechanisms of access to the South African labour market as do Mozambicans, Batswana, Swazi and Basotho. It is ironic that apartheid-era labour agreements, still in force, shut out Zimbabweans but welcome the others. Zimbabwe needs to seek a general bilateral labour agreement with South Africa, as well as working within the structures of SADC to encourage greater cross-border mobility in the region as a whole.
The other major shift of the last decade, requiring a rational policy response on the part of both governments, is the massive growth of informal cross-border trade. Zimbabwe sits at the center of regional informal trade networks. Yet, despite the passage of a SADC Free Trade Protocol, there is still no framework in place for legal informal traders. They are shut out once again in the new South African Immigration Act. This is a gap which urgently requires attention, not least because it discriminates unfairly against women migrants. It is also obstructive of the new emphasis on trade and regional cooperation in SADC. The benefits of freer trade should not be confined to large companies, but to ordinary people as well
Initiating a community of practice amongst primary school mathematics teachers -trials and triumphs
No full textInternational audienceThis paper derives from the early phases of the first author’s doctoral study. Eight primary school teachers at a school in South Africa’s Eastern Cape Province were invited to be part of a community of practice in which strategies for using music to support the teaching and learning of fractions would be explored. Wenger’s theory of community of practice guided the first author as facilitator in this collaborative space. Having immersed herself as a researcher in the school context, she began by inviting the participating teachers to interrogate and trial a series of integrated mathematics and music lessons designed by the authors. In this paper the authors analyse some of the early trials and triumphs of working within a community of practice
Differences in foreclosure rates of owner-occupied and non-owner-occupied residential multi-family properties during depressed housing market conditions (2007-2008)
No full textThis dissertation study examines whether owner-occupation (OO), in depressed housing markets, has significant impact on foreclosure rates of residential multi-family properties in Manchester and Nashua, New Hampshire. The study is an extension on Wardrip & Pelletiere's 2008 research that covered four New England states: New Hampshire, Connecticut, Rhode Island and Massachusetts. In this study Wardrip & Pelletiere found that residential multi-family properties have significantly higher foreclosure rates compared to single-family properties. This researcher adds value to Wardrip & Pelletiere's study by arguing that owner-occupation is a significant factor in foreclosures of residential real estate in general, and especially, in foreclosures of residential multi-family properties, in general.
To examine the problem of increasing and higher foreclosure rates amongst residential multi-family properties, the study uses quantitative and qualitative research methods. The quantitative component covers the entire population of residential 2- to 4-unit multifamily properties in Manchester and Nashua over the 2-year period from 2007 to 2008. The study compares the foreclosure rates of owner-occupied and non-owner-occupied residential multi-family properties in the two cities. For hypothesis testing Independent Samples t Test was used to measure differences in the maintenance and upkeep of randomly selected owner-occupied and non-owner-occupied multi-family properties in Manchester. Geographical Information System (GIS) mapping was used to lay out and analyze the spatial distribution of all residential multi-family properties, and the location of foreclosures within that distribution, in Manchester. Detailed interviews were conducted with key informants representing major multi-family stakeholder institutions in New Hampshire to gather their perceptions on owner-occupied and non-owneroccupied multi-family homeownership. The study found that there are significant differences between the foreclosure rates of owner-occupied and non-owner-occupied multi-family properties in Manchester and Nashua, New Hampshire.
To theoretically explain the differences in foreclosure rates of OO and NOO multi-family properties two theoretical frameworks were developed and applied, i.e., "Broken Windows" and "Meaning of Home".
Broken Windows (BW) theory, attributed to two criminologists, James Wilson and George Kelling, says that if broken windows remain unrepaired, vandals will soon break the building's remaining windows and the windows of abutting properties and those of other properties in the neighborhood. This researcher uses "Broken Windows" as a metaphor for the hypothesized relative neglect in upkeep and maintenance of NOO multi-family properties. "Meaning of Home" theory is a construct developed from four concepts: "Home Use Value"; "Meaning of Home"; "Rental Value"; and "Investment Value" as applied to owner-occupied and non-owner-occupied multi-family homeownership, based on perceived and actual expectations, behaviors and the general psychology of multi-family homeowners.
Homeowners are classified as owner-occupiers (OOs) and non-owner-occupiers (NOOs). The study argues that owner-occupiers are usually more financially and psychologically invested in the multi-family property and the neighborhood they live in. On the other hand, non-owner-occupying investors are hypothesized to be less socially and economically invested in the property and neighborhood, mainly because neither is their own home. The researcher argues that if rental income and investment value are not on a financially rewarding trajectory for the non-owner-occupying multi-family investor, there is no, or very little, incentive for him / her to continue holding on to the asset.
The study found that, on average, owner-occupied multi-family properties are significantly better maintained, and have positive social and economic externalities for their neighborhoods, communities and local authorities. This is in keeping with the Meaning of Home theory as developed and advanced in this study. Non-owneroccupied multi-family properties were found to be significantly more in disrepair, to have significantly less curb appeal, and to have significantly greater risk of being foreclosed in depressed housing market conditions. Based on GIS mapping analyses of Manchester, New Hampshire, this study also found that owner-occupied and nonowner occupied multi-family buildings tend to cluster around each other or to be clustered in specific neighborhoods of the city.
The study recommends that low-income to moderate-income multi-family homeownership policies be seriously considered in their varied formats, including but not limited to having exploratory and specific programs that support, promote and finance owner-occupation of residential multi-family properties. The study also raises a strong case for policy makers to promote policies that support mixed-income neighborhood development, and explore possibilities for the conversion of non-owneroccupied residential multi-family buildings to owner-occupied condominiums, housing co-operatives and land trusts. (Author abstract)Dhliwayo, L. L. (2010). Differences in foreclosure rates of owner-occupied and non-owner-occupied residential multi-family properties during depressed housing market conditions (2007-2008). Retrieved from http://academicarchive.snhu.eduDoctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.)School of Community Economic Developmen
How does the impact of an HIV/AIDS information campaign vary with educational attainment ? Evidence from rural Uganda
No full textThe responsiveness to information is thought to be one channel through which education affects health outcomes. The author tests this hypothesis by examining the effectiveness of an information campaign that aims at preventing the HIV/AIDS epidemic in Uganda. Previous studies in the epidemiological literature have generally concluded that, in Africa, there was either a positive association or no association between HIV infection and schooling levels. Using individual level data from a cohort study following the general population of a cluster of villages in rural Uganda over 12 years, the author shows that, after more than a decade of prevention campaigns about the dangers of the epidemic, there has been a substantial evolution in the HIV/education gradient. Early in the epidemic, in 1990, there was no robust relation between HIV/AIDS and education. In 2000, among young individuals, in particular among females, education lowers the risk of being HIV positive. Results on HIV incidence in a duration framework confirm that finding by establishing that, for young individuals, education reduces the probability of seroconversion. These findings reveal that educated individuals have been more responsive to the HIV/AIDS information campaigns. The analysis of sexual behavior reinforces that conclusion: condom use is associated positively with schooling levels.Disease Control&Prevention,Health Monitoring&Evaluation,Agricultural Knowledge&Information Systems,Public Health Promotion,Curriculum&Instruction,Health Monitoring&Evaluation,Curriculum&Instruction,HIV AIDS,Teaching and Learning,Agricultural Knowledge&Information Systems
Outdoor Mosquito Control Using Odour-Baited Devices: Development and Evaluation of a Potential New Strategy to Complement Indoor Malaria Prevention Methods
No full textA considerable effort is currently underway to develop a malaria vaccine based on live Plasmodium falciparum sporozoites. The first requisite of a sporozoite vaccine is the guarantee of parasite arrest prior to the onset of the pathogenic blood stage. Immunisation with genetically attenuated parasites (GAP) that arrest in the liver forms a promising approach. Work in this thesis describes the development and characterisation of a P. berghei Δb9Δslarp GAP that fully arrests in the liver. Immunisation of multiple mouse strains with low numbers of Δb9Δslarp GAP resulted in sterile protection. The Δb9Δslarp GAP is there- fore the leading GAP vaccine candidate. Work in this the- sis further describes the effect of varying the parameters of sporozoite inoculation on parasite liver load. These findings provide a rationale for the design of clinical trials aimed at the administration of live attenuated P. falciparum sporozoites
Free Asparagine Concentrations in Canadian Hard Red Spring Wheat Cultivars
No full textThe amino acid asparagine is considered the rate limiting precursor in the formation of acrylamide in cereal based baked foods. However, there are no data on the quantity of this precursor in Canadian wheat. Wholemeal and white flour samples obtained from 30 Canadian Hard Red Spring (Canada HRS) wheat grown in the Prairie Provinces were analysed for asparagine content by liquid chromatography. The asparagine content varied from 302 to 965 and 116 to 336 Âľg/ g for wholemeal and white flour, respectively. Therefore, wheat grown in Canada has similar asparagine levels to wheat grown in other parts of the world. Analysis of variance suggested that asparagine content is significantly affected by genotype (pThe accepted manuscript in pdf format is listed with the files at the bottom of this page. The presentation of the authors' names and (or) special characters in the title of the manuscript may differ slightly between what is listed on this page and what is listed in the pdf file of the accepted manuscript; that in the pdf file of the accepted manuscript is what was submitted by the author
Independent and combined effects of improved water, sanitation, and hygiene, and improved complementary feeding, on child stunting and anaemia in rural Zimbabwe: a cluster-randomised trial.
No full textBACKGROUND: Child stunting reduces survival and impairs neurodevelopment. We tested the independent and combined effects of improved water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH), and improved infant and young child feeding (IYCF) on stunting and anaemia in in Zimbabwe. METHODS: We did a cluster-randomised, community-based, 2 × 2 factorial trial in two rural districts in Zimbabwe. Clusters were defined as the catchment area of between one and four village health workers employed by the Zimbabwe Ministry of Health and Child Care. Women were eligible for inclusion if they permanently lived in clusters and were confirmed pregnant. Clusters were randomly assigned (1:1:1:1) to standard of care (52 clusters), IYCF (20 g of a small-quantity lipid-based nutrient supplement per day from age 6 to 18 months plus complementary feeding counselling; 53 clusters), WASH (construction of a ventilated improved pit latrine, provision of two handwashing stations, liquid soap, chlorine, and play space plus hygiene counselling; 53 clusters), or IYCF plus WASH (53 clusters). A constrained randomisation technique was used to achieve balance across the groups for 14 variables related to geography, demography, water access, and community-level sanitation coverage. Masking of participants and fieldworkers was not possible. The primary outcomes were infant length-for-age Z score and haemoglobin concentrations at 18 months of age among children born to mothers who were HIV negative during pregnancy. These outcomes were analysed in the intention-to-treat population. We estimated the effects of the interventions by comparing the two IYCF groups with the two non-IYCF groups and the two WASH groups with the two non-WASH groups, except for outcomes that had an important statistical interaction between the interventions. This trial is registered with ClinicalTrials.gov, number NCT01824940. FINDINGS: Between Nov 22, 2012, and March 27, 2015, 5280 pregnant women were enrolled from 211 clusters. 3686 children born to HIV-negative mothers were assessed at age 18 months (884 in the standard of care group from 52 clusters, 893 in the IYCF group from 53 clusters, 918 in the WASH group from 53 clusters, and 991 in the IYCF plus WASH group from 51 clusters). In the IYCF intervention groups, the mean length-for-age Z score was 0·16 (95% CI 0·08-0·23) higher and the mean haemoglobin concentration was 2·03 g/L (1·28-2·79) higher than those in the non-IYCF intervention groups. The IYCF intervention reduced the number of stunted children from 620 (35%) of 1792 to 514 (27%) of 1879, and the number of children with anaemia from 245 (13·9%) of 1759 to 193 (10·5%) of 1845. The WASH intervention had no effect on either primary outcome. Neither intervention reduced the prevalence of diarrhoea at 12 or 18 months. No trial-related serious adverse events, and only three trial-related adverse events, were reported. INTERPRETATION: Household-level elementary WASH interventions implemented in rural areas in low-income countries are unlikely to reduce stunting or anaemia and might not reduce diarrhoea. Implementation of these WASH interventions in combination with IYCF interventions is unlikely to reduce stunting or anaemia more than implementation of IYCF alone. FUNDING: Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, UK Department for International Development, Wellcome Trust, Swiss Development Cooperation, UNICEF, and US National Institutes of Health.The SHINE trial is funded by the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation (OPP1021542 and OPP113707); UK Department for International Development; Wellcome Trust, UK (093768/Z/10/Z, 108065/Z/15/Z and 203905/Z/16/Z); Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation; US National Institutes of Health (2R01HD060338-06); and UNICEF (PCA-2017-0002)
