16 research outputs found
Upwelling on the continental slope of the Alaskan Beaufort Sea : storms, ice, and oceanographic response
No full textAuthor Posting. © American Geophysical Union, 2009. This article is posted here by permission of American Geophysical Union for personal use, not for redistribution. The definitive version was published in Journal of Geophysical Research 114 (2009): C00A13, doi:10.1029/2008JC005009.The characteristics of Pacific-born storms that cause upwelling along the Beaufort Sea continental slope, the oceanographic response, and the modulation of the response due to sea ice are investigated. In fall 2002 a mooring array located near 152°W measured 11 significant upwelling events that brought warm and salty Atlantic water to shallow depths. When comparing the storms that caused these events to other Aleutian lows that did not induce upwelling, interesting trends emerged. Upwelling occurred most frequently when storms were located in a region near the eastern end of the Aleutian Island Arc and Alaskan Peninsula. Not only were these storms deep but they generally had northward-tending trajectories. While the steering flow aloft aided this northward progression, the occurrence of lee cyclogenesis due to the orography of Alaska seems to play a role as well in expanding the meridional influence of the storms. In late fall and early winter both the intensity and frequency of the upwelling diminished significantly at the array site. It is argued that the reduction in amplitude was due to the onset of heavy pack ice, while the decreased frequency was due to two different upper-level atmospheric blocking patterns inhibiting the far field influence of the storms.The following grants provided
support for this study: National Science Foundation grants OPP-0731928
(R.S.P.) and OPP-0713250 (R.S.P. and P.S.F.), Office of Naval Research
grant N00014-07-1-1040 (D.J.T. and R.A.G.), Natural Sciences and Engineering
Research Council of Canada (G.W.K.M.), Woods Hole Oceanographic
Institution Arctic Initiative (J.Y.)
Pentraxins coordinate excitatory synapse maturation and circuit integration of parvalbumin interneurons
No full textThis is the author accepted manuscript. The final version is available from the publisher via the DOI in this record.Circuit computation requires precision in the timing, extent, and synchrony of principal cell (PC) firing that is largely enforced by parvalbumin-expressing, fast-spiking interneurons (PVFSIs). To reliably coordinate network activity, PVFSIs exhibit specialized synaptic and membrane properties that promote efficient afferent recruitment such as expression of high-conductance, rapidly gating, GluA4-containing AMPA receptors (AMPARs). We found that PVFSIs upregulate GluA4 during the second postnatal week coincident with increases in the AMPAR clustering proteins NPTX2 and NPTXR. Moreover, GluA4 is dramatically reduced in NPTX2(-/-)/NPTXR(-/-) mice with consequent reductions in PVFSI AMPAR function. Early postnatal NPTX2(-/-)/NPTXR(-/-) mice exhibit delayed circuit maturation with a prolonged critical period permissive for giant depolarizing potentials. Juvenile NPTX2(-/-)/NPTXR(-/-) mice display reduced feedforward inhibition yielding a circuit deficient in rhythmogenesis and prone to epileptiform discharges. Our findings demonstrate an essential role for NPTXs in controlling network dynamics highlighting potential therapeutic targets for disorders with inhibition/excitation imbalances such as schizophrenia.Work supported by a PRAT fellowship to M.S.W., an NICHD intramural award to C.J.M., NIDCD intramural
research program funding to R.S.P., an NIMH intramural award to H.A.C., NIH grants (PAR-02-059, NS 039156)
to P.F.W., and an NIH grant (EY022730) to M.T.
A continuous pathway for fresh water along the East Greenland shelf
No full text© The Author(s), 2020. This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License. The definitive version was published in Foukal, N. P., Gelderloos, R., & Pickart, R. S. A continuous pathway for fresh water along the East Greenland shelf. Science Advances, 6(43), (2020): eabc4254, doi:10.1126/sciadv.abc4254.Export from the Arctic and meltwater from the Greenland Ice Sheet together form a southward-flowing coastal current along the East Greenland shelf. This current transports enough fresh water to substantially alter the large-scale circulation of the North Atlantic, yet the coastal current’s origin and fate are poorly known due to our lack of knowledge concerning its north-south connectivity. Here, we demonstrate how the current negotiates the complex topography of Denmark Strait using in situ data and output from an ocean circulation model. We determine that the coastal current north of the strait supplies half of the transport to the coastal current south of the strait, while the other half is sourced from offshore via the shelfbreak jet, with little input from the Greenland Ice Sheet. These results indicate that there is a continuous pathway for Arctic-sourced fresh water along the entire East Greenland shelf from Fram Strait to Cape Farewell.Funding for this work comes from the NSF under grant numbers OCE-1756361 and OCE-1558742 (N.P.F. and R.S.P.) and grant numbers OCE-1756863 and OAC-1835640 (R.G.)
Water mass transformation in the Iceland Sea: contrasting two winters separated by four decades
No full text© The Author(s), 2022. This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License. The definitive version was published in Våge, K., Semper, S., Valdimarsson, H., Jónsson, S., Pickart, R., & Moore, G. Water mass transformation in the Iceland Sea: contrasting two winters separated by four decades. Deep Sea Research Part I: Oceanographic Research Papers, 186, (2022): 103824, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dsr.2022.103824.Dense water masses formed in the Nordic Seas flow across the Greenland–Scotland Ridge and contribute substantially to the lower limb of the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation. Originally considered an important source of dense water, the Iceland Sea gained renewed interest when the North Icelandic Jet — a current transporting dense water from the Iceland Sea into Denmark Strait — was discovered in the early 2000s. Here we use recent hydrographic data to quantify water mass transformation in the Iceland Sea and contrast the present conditions with measurements from hydrographic surveys conducted four decades earlier. We demonstrate that the large-scale hydrographic structure of the central Iceland Sea has changed significantly over this period and that the locally transformed water has become less dense, in concert with a retreating sea-ice edge and diminished ocean-to-atmosphere heat fluxes. This has reduced the available supply of dense water to the North Icelandic Jet, but also permitted densification of the East Greenland Current during its transit through the presently ice-free western Iceland Sea in winter. Together, these changes have significantly altered the contribution from the Iceland Sea to the overturning in the Nordic Seas over the four decade period.Support for this work was provided by the Trond Mohn Foundation, Norway under grant BFS2016REK01 (K.V. and S.S.), the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under the Marie Skłodowska-Curie grant agreement no. 101022251 (S.S.), the US National Science Foundation under grants OCE-1259618 and OCE- 1948505 (R.S.P), and the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (G.W.K.M)
The Iceland-Faroe slope jet: a conduit for dense water toward the Faroe Bank Channel overflow
No full text© The Author(s), 2020. This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License. The definitive version was published in Semper, S., Pickart, R. S., Vage, K., Larsen, K. M. H., Hatun, H., & Hansen, B. The Iceland-Faroe slope jet: a conduit for dense water toward the Faroe Bank Channel overflow. Nature Communications, 11(1), (2020): 5390, doi:10.1038/s41467-020-19049-5.Dense water from the Nordic Seas passes through the Faroe Bank Channel and supplies the lower limb of the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation, a critical component of the climate system. Yet, the upstream pathways of this water are not fully known. Here we present evidence of a previously unrecognised deep current following the slope from Iceland toward the Faroe Bank Channel using high-resolution, synoptic shipboard observations and long-term measurements north of the Faroe Islands. The bulk of the volume transport of the current, named the Iceland-Faroe Slope Jet (IFSJ), is relatively uniform in hydrographic properties, very similar to the North Icelandic Jet flowing westward along the slope north of Iceland toward Denmark Strait. This suggests a common source for the two major overflows across the Greenland-Scotland Ridge. The IFSJ can account for approximately half of the total overflow transport through the Faroe Bank Channel, thus constituting a significant component of the overturning circulation in the Nordic Seas.Support for this work was provided by the Bergen Research Foundation Grant BFS2016REK01 (S.S. and K.V.), the U.S. National Science Foundation Grants OCE-1558742 and OCE-1259618 (R.S.P.), the Danish Ministry of Climate, Energy and Utilities (K.M.H.L., H.H., and B.H.) and the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under grant agreement 727852 (Blue-Action) (K.M.H.L., H.H., and B.H.)
Analyse van het JARKUS-bestand rond Egmond aan Zee
No full textIn deze studie is geprobeerd om een verklaring te vinden voor een opvallend erosiesedimentatie- patroon rond Egmond aan Zee, in het kustvak tussen raai 30.25 en raai 46.00. Wanneer de mate van kustvooruitgang en kustachteruitgang langs de kust wordt uitgezet blijkt een golfachtig patroon op te treden met een kenmerkende golflengte van ongeveer 2 km. Dit patroon is door Boschloo gevonden voor het gehele profielgedeelte boven N.A.P. - 6.00 m voor de periode 1964-1985. Als eerste is in deze studie nagegaan of dit patroon ook nog te zien is bij een langere kuberingsperiode. Dit blijkt inderdaad het geval te zijn. Daarnaast is onderzocht of het erosie-sedimentatie-patroon ook nog aanwezig is in hogere zones in het profiel. Ook dat is het geval, zij het dat de amplitude van het patroon kleiner wordt naarmate hoger in het profiel wordt gekeken. In deze studie is onderzocht of er in het profiel zones aan te wijzen zijn die een groter verloop van de zandhoeveelheden te zien geven dan andere zones. Met andere woorden: zijn de beschouwde profielen vormvast in de tijd. In 75% van de raaien blijkt het te gaan om vormvaste profielen die of evenwijdig voor- of evenwijdig achteruitgaan Of stabiel zijn in de tijd. In de overige 25% van de raaien wordt de vormverandering van de profielen gekenmerkt door een vooruitgang van een deel van de onderwateroever , een achteruitgang van het strand of een versteiling van het profiel door opstuwing van zand. Van het patroon moet worden aangenomen dat het zich verplaatst langs de kust of dat het op den duur uitdempt. Het lijkt fysisch onmogelijk dat het patroon zich in de tijd handhaaft; de kust zou dan een extreme 'zaagtandvorm' krijgen. Door middel van correlatieberekeningen is geprobeerd om aan het erosie-sedimentatiepatroon een verplaatsingssnelheid toe te kennen. Hierbij is gebruikgemaakt van een vaste kuberingsperiode ('window') met een lengte van 17 jaar. Dit 17-jarige 'window' is enige malen verschoven in de JARKUS-periode (1964-1990) en telkens vergeleken met het 'window' 1964-1980. In eerste instantie zijn de correlatieberekeningen bij een ondergrens van N.A.P. -6.00 m en later nogmaals bij een ondergrens van N.A.P. +2.00 muitgevoerd. Uit de correlatieberekeningen is geconcludeerd dat het erosie-sedimentatie-patroon zich verplaatst van noord naar zuid met een verplaatsingssnelheid van ongeveer 40 mij. In dit onderzoek is getracht om het (grillige) erosie-sedimentatie-patroon een analytische beschrijving te geven met behulp van een sinusfitting. Door het erosie-sedimentatie-patroon voor drie verschillende perioden is een sinusoïde gelegd met een bepaalde golflengte, trend, amplitude en fase. Deze vier grootheden zijn bepaald door met behulp van de kleinste kwadraten methode voor elke periode een sinusoïde te zoeken die een zo klein mogelijke geintegreerde kwadratische fout geeft. De onderzochte perioden zijn 1964-1980, 1964-1985 en 1964-1990. De kwadratische fout voor de sinusfitting bleek 1.2 à 1.5 maal zo klein te zijn als volgde uit de benadering met behulp van lineaire regressie. Voor de golflengten van de sinusoïden zijn waarden gevonden rond de 1850 m, voor de trends waarden van 1.4 à 1.8 m2/m1j, voor de amplituden waarden tussen 7.76 en 8.87 m3/mlj en voor de fasen waarden van -1.4 tot -1.1 rad. Uit de faseverschillen tussen de sinusoïden kan een verplaatsingssnelheid en verplaatsingsrichting worden berekend. Voor het gemiddelde van de verplaatsingssnelheid van het erosiesedimentatie- patroon werd 9 mij gevonden. Analyse van hel JARKUS-besland Uit dit deel van het onderzoek bleek de verplaatsingsrichting van het erosie-sedimentatiepatroon ook van noord naar zuid te zijn. Er is een model. opgesteld dat het ontstaan en de verandering van het erosie-sedimentatiepatroon beschrijft. Hierbij is aangenomen dat het patroon het gevolg is van het zich verplaatsen van een hoeveelheid zand langs de kust. Het verloop van deze hoeveelheid zand is sinusvormig aangenomen. De modelparameters zijn bepaald aan de hand van de bevindingen uit de sinusfitting. De belangrijkste conclusies die uit dit deel van het onderzoek kunnen worden getrokken, zijn ten eerste dat de grootte van de amplitude van de zandhoeveelheid die langs de kust trekt ongeveer 145 m3/m is en dat de snelheid van verplaatsen van de zandgolf circa 18 mij is van noord naar zuid. Uit de verhouding van de golflengte en de verplaatsingssnelheid kan dan worden berekend dat de periode van de zandgolf in de buurt ligt van de 100 jaar. Dit zou inhouden dat het erosie-sedimentatie-patroon pas na circa 200 jaar is 'geneutraliseerd'. In het laatste deel van het onderzoek is nagegaan of de verschillende karakteristieke waarden van de grootheden die met een (eventuele) zandgolf samenhangen terug te vinden zijn in de meetgegevens van de strandlijnen zoals die voor dit kustvak zijn gemeten sinds 1843. De grootte-orde van de periode blijkt goed te kloppen. De amplitude die in de meetgegevens over de afgelopen 150 jaar wordt gevonden blijkt wat groter te zijn dan eerder is aangenomen, terwijl de golflengte van 2 km slecht te onderkennen is in de langjarige meetgegevens. Tot slot is nog een meer objectieve maat voor de ligging van de kust berekend voor de periode 1964-1990. Dit is gebeurd door een karakteristieke kustlijn te bepalen aan de hand van de hoeveelheid zand die zich in elke raai bevindt tussen de grenzen N.A.P. +4.00 m en N .A.P. -s.oo m. Uitgezet ten opzichte van de R.S.P.-lijn is deze zandhoeveelheid, gedeeld door de hoogte van de bekeken zone, een objectieve maat voor de positie van de kust. De belangrijkste conclusie is dat blijkt dat de kust in de afgelopen decennia aanzienlijk achteruit is gegaan ter hoogte van Egmond aan Zee. Daarnaast kan worden geconstateerd dat de kust als het ware een 'zaagtandvorm' heeft gekregen. Er treden (grote) verschillen in de ligging van de kust op op relatief korte afstanden van elkaar. Op grond van het verrichte onderzoek kan worden gesteld dat het ontstaan van het erosiesedimentatie-patroon dat door Boschloo werd gevonden op grond van de ruimteschaal niet kan worden verklaard door het bestaan en de beweging van mui-zwin-systemen alleen langs de kust. Daarnaast wordt op basis van de tijdschaal geconcludeerd dat ook het ontstaan en de zeewaartse migratie van brandingsruggen alleen geen verklaring is voor het optreden van het erosie-sedimentatie-patroon. Wanneer afstand wordt genomen van de algemeen aangenomen dimensies van horizontale zandgolven kan het optreden van deze zandgolven een verklaring zijn voor ontstaan en het veranderen van het gevonden erosie-sedimentatie-patroon. Voor de ruimteschaal van de (eventuele) zandgolf wordt een veel kleinere waarde gevonden dan over het algemeen wordt aangenomen, terwijl de tijdschaal enigszins groter is. Het gevolg hiervan is dat voor de verplaatsingssnelheid van het erosie-sedimentatie-patroon een kleine waarde wordt gevonden.Coastal EngineeringHydraulic EngineeringCivil Engineering and Geoscience
Thermoelectric study of Co2FeAl thin films grown onto flexible P(VDF-TrFE-CFE) terpolymer
No full textThe necessity of energy conversion solutions has increased over the last years due to the necessity to power the small and flexible devices related to the Internet of things (IoT) concept. One of the most promissory ways to address this challenge relies on thermoelectric effects, such as the anomalous Nernst effect. Here flexible poly (vinylidene fluoride-trifluoroethylene-chlorofluoroethylene) - P(VDF-TrFE-CFE) terpolymer sheet with high dielectric constant were produced by the doctor blade technique and used as the substrate to produce Co2FeAl/P(VDF-TrFE-CFE) heterostructures. The Co2FeAl layers were grown by magnetron sputtering with a thickness of 40 nm. The integration of P(VDF-TrFE-CFE) and magnetron sputtered Co2FeAl thin films allowed to explore the thermomagnetic properties of the composite through the Anomalous Nernst Effect and the influence of the flexible P(VDF-TrFE-CFE) substrate on this effect. The morphological, dielectric, and mechanical properties of the polymer were analyzed, as well as the structural, and magnetic properties of the magnetic thin films to support the thermomagnetic results. The Co2FeAl ferromagnetic thin films presented an isotropic magnetic behaviour, which was reflected in the thermomagnetic curves. Further, the curve's shape is stable irrespective of the thermal gradient and angle of the external magnetic field. The study demonstrates that it is possible to change from a rigid substrate (glass) to a flexible one (polymer), without affecting the thermomagnetic effect. Our findings open new possibilities to produce and integrate flexible high-dielectric polymers with thermomagnetic phenomena, which can be further explored for energy harvesting applications.This work was supported by the Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology (FCT) in the framework of the Strategic Funding UIDB/04650/2020, UID/QUI/00686/2020 and under projects MIT-EXPL/TDI/0033/2021, POCI-01–0247-FEDER-046985 and 2022.03931. PTDC, funded by national funds through FCT and by the ERDF through the COMPETE2020—Programa Operacional Competitividade e Internacionalizaç ão (POCI). The authors also thank the FCT for financial support under Grant 2021.07361.BD (R.S.P.) and FCT investigator contracts CEECIND/00833/2017 (RG) and 2020.04028. CEECIND (C.M.C.). Marcio A. Correa gratefully acknowledges the CAPES (8887.573100/2020–00) and CNPq. A. Ferreira thanks the FCT for the contract under the Stimulus of Scientific Employment (CTTI-31/18 – CF (2) junior researcher contract). Senentxu Lanceros-Mendez thanks the Basque Government Education and Industry Department under the IKUR and ELKARTEK programs, respectively. Author Marcio A Correa acknowledges support of the INCT of Spintronics and Advanced Magnetic Nanostructures (INCT-SpinNanoMag), CNPq 406836/2022–1
Shelf-basin interactions and water mass residence times in the western Arctic Ocean: Insights provided by radium isotopes
No full textAuthor Posting. © American Geophysical Union, 2019. This article is posted here by permission of American Geophysical Union for personal use, not for redistribution. The definitive version was published in Journal of Geophysical Research-Oceans 124(5), (2019): 3279-3297, doi: 10.1029/2019JC014988.Radium isotopes are produced through the decay of thorium in sediments and are soluble in seawater; thus, they are useful for tracing ocean boundary‐derived inputs to the ocean. Here we apply radium isotopes to study continental inputs and water residence times in the Arctic Ocean, where land‐ocean interactions are currently changing in response to rising air and sea temperatures. We present the distributions of radium isotopes measured on the 2015 U.S. GEOTRACES transect in the Western Arctic Ocean and combine this data set with historical radium observations in the Chukchi Sea and Canada Basin. The highest activities of radium‐228 were observed in the Transpolar Drift and the Chukchi shelfbreak jet, signaling that these currents are heavily influenced by interactions with shelf sediments. The ventilation of the halocline with respect to inputs from the Chukchi shelf occurs on time scales of ≤19–23 years. Intermediate water ventilation time scales for the Makarov and Canada Basins were determined to be ~20 and >30 years, respectively, while deep water residence times in these basins were on the order of centuries. The radium distributions and residence times described in this study serve as a baseline for future studies investigating the impacts of climate change on the Arctic Ocean.We thank the captain and crew of the USCGC Healy (HLY1502) and the chief scientists D. Kadko and W. Landing for coordinating a safe and successful expedition. We thank the members of the pump team, P. Lam, E. Black, S. Pike, X. Yang, and M. Heller for their assistance with sample collection and for their unfailingly positive attitudes during this 65‐day expedition. We also appreciate sampling assistance from P. Aguilar and M. Stephens, and MATLAB assistance from B. Corlett, A. Pacini, P. Lin, and M. Li. The radium data from the HLY1502 expedition are available through the Biological & Chemical Oceanography Data Management Office (https://www.bco‐dmo.org/dataset/718440) and the radium measurements from the SHEBA, AWS‐2000, and SBI expeditions can be found in the supporting information. This work was funded by NSF awards OCE‐1458305 to M.A.C., OCE‐1458424 to W.S.M., and PLR‐1504333 to R.S.P. This research was conducted with Government support under and awarded by a DoD, Air Force Office of Scientific Research, National Defense Science and Engineering Graduate (NDSEG) Fellowship awarded to L.E.K., 32 CFR 168a.2019-10-2
Seasonal climate manipulations have only minor effects on litter decomposition rates and N dynamics but strong effects on litter P dynamics of sub-arctic bog species
No full textLitter decomposition and nutrient mineralization in high-latitude peatlands are constrained by low temperatures. So far, little is known about the effects of seasonal components of climate change (higher spring and summer temperatures, more snow which leads to higher winter soil temperatures) on these processes. In a 4-year field experiment, we manipulated these seasonal components in a sub-arctic bog and studied the effects on the decomposition and N and P dynamics of leaf litter of Calamagrostis lapponica, Betula nana, and Rubus chamaemorus, incubated both in a common ambient environment and in the treatment plots. Mass loss in the controls increased in the order Calamagrostis < Betula < Rubus. After 4 years, overall mass loss in the climate-treatment plots was 10 % higher compared to the ambient incubation environment. Litter chemistry showed within each incubation environment only a few and species-specific responses. Compared to the interspecific differences, they resulted in only moderate climate treatment effects on mass loss and these differed among seasons and species. Neither N nor P mineralization in the litter were affected by the incubation environment. Remarkably, for all species, no net N mineralization had occurred in any of the treatments during 4 years. Species differed in P-release patterns, and summer warming strongly stimulated P release for all species. Thus, moderate changes in summer temperatures and/or winter snow addition have limited effects on litter decomposition rates and N dynamics, but summer warming does stimulate litter P release. As a result, N-limitation of plant growth in this sub-arctic bog may be sustained or even further promoted. © 2012 The Author(s)
Evidence for massive and recurrent toxic blooms of Alexandrium catenella in the Alaskan Arctic
No full text© The Author(s), 2021. This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License. The definitive version was published in Anderson, D. M., Fachon, E., Pickart, R. S., Lin, P., Fischer, A. D., Richlen, M. L., Uva, V., Brosnahan, M. L., McRaven, L., Bahr, F., Lefebvre, K., Grebmeier, J. M., Danielson, S. L., Lyu, Y., & Fukai, Y. Evidence for massive and recurrent toxic blooms of Alexandrium catenella in the Alaskan Arctic. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 118(41) (2021): e2107387118, https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2107387118.Among the organisms that spread into and flourish in Arctic waters with rising temperatures and sea ice loss are toxic algae, a group of harmful algal bloom species that produce potent biotoxins. Alexandrium catenella, a cyst-forming dinoflagellate that causes paralytic shellfish poisoning worldwide, has been a significant threat to human health in southeastern Alaska for centuries. It is known to be transported into Arctic regions in waters transiting northward through the Bering Strait, yet there is little recognition of this organism as a human health concern north of the Strait. Here, we describe an exceptionally large A. catenella benthic cyst bed and hydrographic conditions across the Chukchi Sea that support germination and development of recurrent, locally originating and self-seeding blooms. Two prominent cyst accumulation zones result from deposition promoted by weak circulation. Cyst concentrations are among the highest reported globally for this species, and the cyst bed is at least 6× larger in area than any other. These extraordinary accumulations are attributed to repeated inputs from advected southern blooms and to localized cyst formation and deposition. Over the past two decades, warming has likely increased the magnitude of the germination flux twofold and advanced the timing of cell inoculation into the euphotic zone by 20 d. Conditions are also now favorable for bloom development in surface waters. The region is poised to support annually recurrent A. catenella blooms that are massive in scale, posing a significant and worrisome threat to public and ecosystem health in Alaskan Arctic communities where economies are subsistence based.Funding for D.M.A., R.S.P., E.F., P.L., A.D.F., V.U., M.L.B., L.M., F.B., and M.L.R. was provided by grants from the NSF Office of Polar Programs (Grants OPP-1823002 and OPP-1733564) and the National Ocanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Arctic Research program (through the Cooperative Institute for the North Atlantic Region [CINAR; Grants NA14OAR4320158 and NA19OAR4320074]), for J.M.G. through CINAR 22309.07 UMCES (University of Maryland Center for Environmental Science), and for D.M.A. and K.L. through NOAA’s Center for Coastal and Ocean Studies Ecology and Oceanography of Harmful Algal Blooms (ECOHAB) Program (NA20NOS4780195). Funding for D.M.A., M.L.R., M.L.B., E.F., V.U., and A.D.F. was also provided by NSF (Grant OCE-1840381) and NIH (Grant 1P01-ES028938-01) through the Woods Hole Center for Oceans and Human Health. S.L.D. was supported by North Pacific Research Board IERP Grants A91-99a and A91-00a. This is IERP publication ArcticIERP-41 and ECOHAB Contribution No. ECO983
