1,721,048 research outputs found
Managing the Mount Kenya environment for people and elephants
Full text linkForests contain much global biodiversity, and over 90% of the worlds' poorest people depend on them. Few forests remain in East Africa, and these are vulnerable to further fragmentation from expanding settlement, and to over-exploitation by people and wildlife that become prone to over-crowding through isolation. Kenya contains 26 natural habitat fragments and only 3% of forest cover across five main forest blocks. These blocks form the main water towers in semi-arid Kenya on which people and wildlife, far beyond the protected boundaries, depend. Mount Kenya (MK) is the largest forest block, and the protection of its water catchment function is of national importance (Chapter 2). The five forest blocks in Kenya hold almost one third of the total of 28,806 elephants in Kenya, of which MK was estimated as having the largest highland elephant population with 2,911 (±640) individuals in 2001 (Chapter 3). Elephant estimates in forest are usually derived from dung count surveys, which are prone to bias and accordingly most often classed as C or D, in the range from A (best) to E (worst), in the African Elephant Database (AED). The MK elephant estimate described in this thesis was one of only two dung count estimates that were classed as quality B in the AED of 2002 (Chapter 3). Explanatory models based on the dung count data were integrated with a geographic information system (GIS) to develop the most advanced predictive seasonal distribution maps currently available for elephants in a forested environment (Chapter 4). Furthermore, least-cost elephant travel routes and foraging paths were digitally traced over cost surface images, developed from data on preferred elephant habitats in different seasons, physical barriers such as extreme slopes, and land use barriers such as farmland (Chapter 5). This enabled the location of elephant movements in relation to plantations inside the MK forest, and investigation of the relationship between measured tree damage in plantations and elephant movements (Chapter 5). Two areas where subsequently identified where elephant routes strayed from the forest into adjacent farmland, which was where most elephant crop damage was reported by farmers to Kenya Wildlife Service stations and outposts (Chapter 6). Elephants and people trespassing on each other's habitats is pronounced because MK is surrounded by a ring of small-scale farmers, totalling over 500,000 people living within 5,000m of the MK forest boundary on farms of 1.6ha on average (Chapter 6).Time-series analysis of satellite imagery of 1987,1995, and 2000 illustrated a gradual deterioration of MK land and resources, and results of an aerial survey conducted in 1999 showed high levels of illegal exploitation of land and resources (Chapter 7). However, management responsibility of the MK forest transferred from the Forestry Department to the Kenya Wildlife Service in July 2000, and time-series analysis of satellite images of 2000 and 2002 show regeneration of degraded MK land by 2002 (Chapter 8). Comparison of two aerial surveys conducted in 1999 and 2002, showed a significant reduction of illegal exploitation of forest resources on MK by 2002 (Chapter 8). Sound land use management plans are needed for MK to avoid deterioration of the forest by an over-crowded and confined elephant population, and by surrounding people. These plans need to address problems with longer term solutions, regardless of the short term disadvantages that they may entail (Chapter 9)
The costs and benefits of elephants : communities and the CAMPFIRE programme in Zimbabwe
Full text linkCommunity-based conservation programmes are rarely objectively assessed, particularly at the level of wildlife producers, who bear the costs of living with wildlife. In this thesis I investigated the coexistence of humans and elephants within the context of community-based conservation. I explored local support for elephant conservation, and how the interaction between costs and benefits from elephants influenced the nature of this support. I researched human-elephant interactions in two CAMPFIRE districts in the mid-Zambezi Valley in northern Zimbabwe. Here, elephants generated the most revenues to the CAMPFIRE programme, but they also created intense conflict with rural farmers. Conversely, human activities affected elephant ranging patterns. Elephants avoided close contact with settlement, and avoided areas where human activity was great. Indeed, elephants no longer used riverine habitats because of heavy human settlement and resource collection activities. Rural farmers perceived elephants as the worst of all problem animals because of the extensive damage they caused to wet season crops. Local perceptions closely matched with the amount of crop damage that each of the five worst problem animals caused. Human death was considered the second greatest conflict issue. Damage to dry season crops and additional forms of conflict were considered lesser issues. Benefits from elephants were acknowledged, but only where they were substantial. The most mentioned benefit was CAMPFIRE revenues, followed by meat from hunted elephants. However, such benefits were inequitably distributed, and a few villages received investments that were many times more valuable than the rest. Furthermore, benefits did not reflect the pattern of costs incurred from wildlife among the communities. Attitudes towards elephants were largely negative, but some attitudes were more positive. The explanatory variable that most influenced attitudes to elephants was CAMPFIRE revenues. Where there was a substantial investment, people were positive towards elephants. However, where investment was low, and did not reflect the costs, attitudes were strongly negative. The results of this study indicate that it is possible to engender support for elephant conservation among rural communities. However in order to do so more widely, the amount of the benefits should be substantially raised. In addition, the means of disbursement should reflect the patterns of costs that occur at the village level. This study has identified the critical interactions between rural communities and elephants, their key resource, within the CAMPFIRE programme. These findings are relevant to community-based conservation programmes throughout southern Africa, where economic benefits are used as incentives for the conservation of wildlife outside protected areas
Human-elephant conflict in the Masai Mara dispersal areas of Transmara District
Full text linkThis thesis is based on a field study of human-elephant conflict (HfiC) in the Masai Mara dispersal areas of Transmara District, Kenya, during 1999 and 2000. The district experiences high HEC because it supports a small resident elephant population and receives elephants that disperse up the escarpment seasonally from the Masai Mara. The study examines attitudes and perceptions of people towards elephants, land use changes, changes in elephant distributions and densities, types and patterns of HEC, and the success of different mitigation methods. Attitudes and perceptions towards elephants were determined using participatory workshops and questionnaire surveys. Land use patterns were examined using aerial photo surveys, secondary data and field surveys. Elephant abundance and distribution were determined from secondary data and ground surveys. Vegetation plots were established to measure seasonal changes in natural forage, and changes in elephant diet were examined through dung analysis. Conflict data were obtained from KWS records and daily monitoring, including interruption of learning in schools. Data were analysed at fine scale using a Geographical Information System. and appropriate statistical tests were used to determine which of many variables most determined prevailing levels of HEC, and the success of mitigating HEC. Forestland was increasingly converted to cultivation, which in tum reduced elephant range and confined resident elephants to the remaining forest and to group ranches. Corridor usage by elephants increased with migration of wildebeests into the Masai Mara. Seasonal and spatial patterns in the occurrence of crop raiding incidents were determined by the maturity of maize, the area under farming, distance from the road and distance from the market centres. The success of crop protection measures depended on using a combination of traditional methods. Men who are drunk most risk being attacked by elephants. Elephants may also directly and/or indirectly interfere with learning in schools, but pupil performance was mainly determined by distance from school, absenteeism and tribe. The local community fosters negative attitudes towards elephants from which they currently receive no benefits. The future for elephants in Transmara District is bleak unless a benefit sharing, compensation and active problem elephant control programmes are implemented. Effective land use planning and participation of the community in conservation could help achieve these goals. The findings of this study have important implications for the future of elephant conservation in the face of competing human needs, both in Transmara District and elsewhere in Africa
Evaluating conservation policy: integrated conservation and development in Bwindi Impenetrable National Park, Uganda
Full text linkIntegrated conservation and development has been adopted for the management of protected areas throughout the tropics. Evaluating this policy is therefore critical. Most evaluations to date have focused on impacts on local communities, particularly on attitudes towards conservation. In contrast, impacts on biodiversity and on threats to biodiversity are little studied. Consequently, the most critical aspect of the effectiveness of the integrated approach for protected area conservation has yet to be determined. The mountain gorillas of Bwindi Impenetrable National Park are the prime tourist attraction of Uganda and the flagship species for efforts to conserve the forest. Various integrated strategies have been adopted at Bwindi to reduce threats to the gorillas from snares set for bushmeat, and from conflicts between conservation managers and local communities over lost access to resources and crop raiding by wild animals. Bwindi has been a National Park for over ten years and has been hailed a success in protected area management through its integrated approach. In particular, the establishment of harvest zones within the National Park for sanctioned resource collection was key in reducing conflicts around Bwindi, and in improving the attitudes of local communities towards the National Park. However, impacts of harvest zones on biodiversity or on reducing threats to biodiversity have not been determined. In this thesis I evaluate the integrated approach for protected area conservation. I determine the distribution of bushmeat poaching in Bwindi over the periods of National Park gazettement and sanctioned resource harvesting, the interactions between local communities and law enforcement rangers during gazettement and after harvest zones were established, and the distribution of gorillas in relation to illegal activity and harvest zones. The analysis was based on law enforcement data from 1986-2000, which covered the period of national park designation and establishment of harvest zones. Following the gazettement of Bwindi as a National Park, poachers entered the forest less frequently but set larger snare clusters while inside the forest. After harvest zones were established when local attitudes towards the National Park improved, poachers avoided heavily patrolled high harvest zones but continued their activities in the less well-patrolled interior forest and low and medium harvest zones. Overall however, law enforcement was most significant to patrol encounters with poaching. Most poachers in Bwindi are Bakiga agriculturalists hunting bushmeat with snares, mainly for domestic consumption. The activities of poachers over the gazettement and harvest zone periods indicates that the integrated programme failed to reduce threats to gorillas from snares, despite gaining local support for conservation. However, anecdotal records suggest that beekeepers of the harvest programme refrained from poaching after harvest zones were established. Several factors including law enforcement and impacts of sanctioned resource harvesting could have influenced the poachers. Therefore, while law enforcement appears central to the conservation strategy of Bwindi, further study of the benefits that poachers received from Bwindi's integrated programme is necessary to determine the effectiveness of the integrated approach in protected area conservation. Incidents of violent conflict between local communities and staff of Bwindi during gazettement primarily occurred because of the arrest of miners and pit sawyers, and were largely instigated by villagers. Thus the loss of income from gazettement was a major cause of conflict. After establishment of harvest zones, beekeepers of high harvest zones and communities adjacent to high harvest zones demonstrated their support for the National Park by reporting illegal activity to rangers. However, most interactions between communities and rangers after establishment of harvest zones were complaints about crop raiding, particularly by communities who received little assistance from the National Park with mitigating crop raiding by baboons. Therefore, substituting lost income and problem animal control would be appropriate strategies to alleviate conflict between local communities and managers of Bwindi, and reduce the threat that this conflict poses to gorillas. The establishment of harvest zones at Bwindi was in contrast to the more traditional methods of law enforcement employed for the mountain gorilla National Parks of the Virungas. The harvest zones were also controversial. Before Bwindi was gazetted a National Park, human disturbance from mining and pit sawing was considered a primary factor restricting gorillas to forest interior areas. After establishment of harvest zones, disturbance from harvesters and possible increases in illegal activity from allowing local communities into the National Park, could limit the forest areas utilised by gorillas. Gorillas remained concentrated in forest interior areas after establishment of harvest zones. In addition, gorillas continued not to utilise boundary areas of high harvest zones. Other species sensitive to human disturbance were also negatively associated with high harvest zones. Impacts from harvest zones were difficult to determine because several factors influence wildlife distribution in Bwindi, including ecological and demographic factors and historical human use of the forest. Nonetheless, disturbance from sanctioned resource harvesting on species of conservation concern appears an important consideration for managers of protected areas. In conclusion, a dual strategy of law enforcement and sanctioned resource harvesting is recommended for the conservation of Bwindi. Law enforcement was most significant to activities of local poachers, while sanctioned resource harvesting promoted community support for National Park conservation
Fishers and the West African manatee in the Fresco lagoon complex, Cote d'Ivoire: common property, conflict and conservation
Full text linkIn this thesis I investigate the indigenous common property resource management system, and the conflict between the community and the endangered West African manatee (Trichechuss enegalensis), in the lagoon complex of Fresco, one of the six most important habitats for manatee in Cote d'Ivoire. The Fresco lagoon has been, and still is, an important means of transport and a valuable fishery for the local community, which depend on it for their livelihood needs. The lagoon becomes temporarily disconnected from the Atlantic Ocean on a regular basis. Its water level rises to its highest when the inlet is closed, as freshwater inflow, resulting mainly from rain falling in the lagoon's catchment, continue to accumulate behind the closed inlet. The vegetation communities that appear on the flooded shoreline during the highest water level are composed of 63 species from 61 genera and 34 families. A degrading mangrove forest dominates much of the shoreline. The indigenous resource management system in the Fresco lagoon was established during the 17th century, and was structured under an informal indigenous resource management institution, known locally as the N`gni system. The N`gni system was based on customs and traditional beliefs over the spirit of the water. The N`gni system sought to regulate fishing in the lagoon, to prevent conflicts, which may arise from the commonly used gate fishing method, and to maintain continual reverence for the spirit of the water. This was achieved by a set of rules and regulations and by dividing the lagoon into family territories based on the prevailing traditional land tenure system. The state has adopted a new land tenure regime and a free enterprise economic system. The Administrative Decentralization Reform has allowed the establishment of Fresco Town Council. As a result, the N`gni system was abolished and replaced by a government driven co-management committee in 1967, with a strong community representation. Fishing in the sea, which was more profitable for the community, has since stopped. The lagoon, which was initially set aside for fishing only during bad periods in the sea, is now a year round fishing ground, because access to the sea is difficult since the 12 districts of Fresco have been resettled. Younger generations are now losing their skill at fishing in the sea. Finally, as the increasing human population causes further impoverishment of the community, pressure on the lagoon increases. The community still generally retains a positive attitude towards the Fresco lagoon complex and recognizes the link between their cultural identity and its value as an important fishery. However, opinions on the success of present day management and options for future management vary according to ethnic origins, whether native or non-native, the length of residence in the area, and the villages in which users reside. Fishes, crustaceans and molluscs from the lagoon are harvested by the community and methods used include thrown netting, laid netting, line fishing and baskets for shrimp, crabs and oysters. However, several factors constitute a serious challenge for future sustainability of resource use in the lagoon, including: the community now fish only in a lagoon of relatively small size; the human population is increasing, the inlet is breached almost every year giving little time for fish to grow; the degradation of the mangrove forest is ongoing resulting in lost of nutrients and of a refuge to fish and manatees and, the new coastal highway now improves access to the region. The West African manatee is a solitary animal, less active during the day than during the night, that spends its time resting, moving, feeding and cavorting. Its activities are linked to tidal stage and season. Manatees feed on fruit, mud and deposited plant material, but leaves of emergent plants and grasses found on the water's edge constitute the bulk of their diet. Feeding occurs mostly during night and long feeding excursions are frequently undertaken to riverine locations in the wet season for periods lasting from I night to several weeks. Manatees show a high rate of site fidelity. The home ranges of individuals are independent but overlap almost completely, suggesting that the species is not territorial. The time manatees spend on performing an activity is, in general, determined by the prevailing activity. However, human presence also impacts on time spent on certain activities, and manatees swim away or flee in response to humans at close distance. Manatee flight reactions are a direct response to approaching boats, the number of people transported and the type of activity in which they are engaged. Manatees avoid feeding on emergent plant along the water's edge when people are nearby. Nevertheless, the local community had a positive attitude towards the manatee overall, although most of them believe that manatee population in the Fresco lagoon had declined. To minimize conflicts between manatees and humans in the Fresco lagoon, the number of users should be strictly limited and areas heavily used by manatees should be zoned and human activities regulated in these areas. Finally, the ongoing public awareness campaign should continue and even be improved
Human-elephant conflict in areas adjacent to the Tsavo National Parks, Kenya
Full text linkThis thesis investigates the issue of human-elephant conflict in the Tsavo ecosystem, which has the largest single population of elephants in Kenya. In the Tsavo ecosystem elephants that move out of the Tsavo National Parks became 'problem elephants' as they damage crops, kill people and threaten human life. In addition the presence of elephants in settled areas causes fear and insecurity. Many factors determined the intensity of human-elephant conflict in Tsavo, but five of these were the most significant. These were human population density, percentage of land under cultivation, type of land ownership, fencing and the type of natural vegetation. Conflict was highest on private ownership small holdings with permanent water and wooded bushland type of natural vegetation
Reviled as a grave-robber : the ecology and conservation of striped hyaenas in the human-dominated landscapes of Lebanon
Full text linkCommon property resource management of an Afro-alpine habitat: supporting a population of the critically endangered Ethiopian wolf (Canis simensis)
Full text linkIn areas where national parks are unlikely to be economically viable or socially desirable, an alternative approach is required. Community-led conservation initiatives are one possible approach. Their eventual success requires both an understanding of the ecosystem itself and of the interaction between the indigenous population and the varying components of the ecosystem that they utilise. In this thesis I investigate the indigenous common property resource management system in the Guassa area of Menz in the central highlands of Ethiopia, and the consequences of resource utilisation by the community on the populations of rodents, and of the critically endangered Ethiopian wolf. The area traditionally has been, and still is, a valuable natural resource for the local community that depend on it primarily for thatching grass, firewood and grazing.
The indigenous resource management system was structured under an indigenous resource management institution, known locally as the Qero system, for around 400 years. The system was based on descent groups from founding fathers who agreed on division of the land in 17th century, and further supported by the authority of the church. The function of the Qero system was the regulation and equitable distribution of natural resources among the user community, and it functioned by enacting and enforcing various bye-laws. The Qero system declined in 1975 following changes in land-tenure and rural land reform introduced following the 1974 revolution. In the case of Guassa, incomers previously excluded from the resource gained equal access to the resource through their constituent peasant association. When it became apparent that the resource management system was declining, the community responded by establishing the Guassa Committee, which contains heavy community representation, but remains in line with the existing political and social order.
The community still generally retains a positive attitude to the Guassa area, and recognise its value in providing vital resources. However, opinions on the value of the resources, the success of past management, and the options for future management, all vary according to levels of past and present control, and distance of their village from the Guassa area. Peasant association members once excluded, but now enjoying prime control and living nearby, believe current management is effective, and wish it to continue. In contrast, peasant associations dominated by descent groups formerly in sole charge of Guassa, and living further away, see current management as ineffective and, rather than expecting any return to the Qero system, wish for an element of state control to correct ineffective community management.
The resources of the Guassa are widely used by the community. Grass is still collected for thatching, mainly in the dry season, from the dominant # $%&(() grassland community, but the closed season is not as rigorously enforced as under the Qero system. Firewood is also collected, mainly in the dry season, mainly from the Euryops-Alchemilla shrubland community. Cattle and other livestock are also grazed in the Guassa, which is an important dry season refuge, and mainly utilise the Mima mound community. Several species of rodent live in the Guassa grasslands and their community structure differs between habitat types and their activity differs between day and night. Nevertheless, the current levels of resource use by humans have no overall effect on community structure, but each rodent species is affected differently by each form of use in different habitats, some showing increases in abundance in relation to use and others showing decreases in abundance.
Rodents provide the main prey (88.1%) of the Ethiopian wolf, and rodent density was the main determinant of the habitats selected by the Ethiopian wolf. The home range sizes of individuals and packs, and group sizes, of Ethiopian wolves in the human-dominated Guassa area are similar to those in the relatively undisturbed landscape the Bale Mountains National Park. Furthermore, time spent foraging by wolves was not affected by the presence of humans or livestock closeby. Despite little apparent disturbance of wolves by humans or livestock, the Guassa area only supported a population of approximately 20 Ethiopian wolves, at a somewhat lower density than wolves in Bale Mountains.
Lacking data on population trends of wolves in Guassa, it was not possible to determine if this lower density arose from carrying capacity issues on the one hand or persecution as a result of alleged nuisance value to sheep on the other hand. Nevertheless, overall the local community had a positive attitude towards the wildlife of the Guassa in general, and to the wolf in particular, although many believed that the Ethiopian wolf population had declined. Predation of sheep was the main concern, although sheep loss per household was 0.01% per year
Although the indigenous resource management system was not designed to conserve wildlife, it has certainly allowed the continued co-existence of wildlife with the local community. As perhaps the second largest population of the critically endangered Ethiopian wolf remaining, the Guassa area represents an interesting model of community led management that has had the resilience to resist modernising forces. However, as the human population of the region continues to increase, it is important to ensure that the community continues utilise the natural resources sustainably. This will require the empowerment of the community so that they opt for continued sustainable conservation rather than de facto open access
- …
