1,721,023 research outputs found
Dissociations of grammaticality and specific similarity effects and in artificial grammar learning
No full textThree artificial grammar learning experiments investigated the memory processes underlying classification judgments. In Experiment 1, effects of grammaticality, specific item similarity, and chunk frequency were analogous between classification and recognition tasks. In Experiments 2A and 2B, instructions to exclude "old" and "similar" test items, under conditions that limited the role of conscious recollection, dissociated grammaticality and similarity effects in classification. Dividing attention at test also produced a dissociation in Experiment 3. It is concluded that a dual-process model of classification, whereby the grammaticality and specific similarity effects are based mostly on automatic and intentional memory processes, respectively, is consistent with the results, whereas a unitary mechanism account is not. This conclusion is further supported by evidence indicating that chunk frequency had both implicit and explicit influences on classification judgments
Dataset to support the Southampton Doctoral thesis entitled “Controlled and automatic influences of multiple choice testing"
No full textThe dataset contains the data for eight experiments included in the thesis entitled “Controlled and Automatic Influences of Multiple Choice Testing" which were divided into three papers:
Paper 1 (Experiments 1, 2, and 3)
Paper 2 (Experiments 1 and 2)
Paper 3 (Experiments 1, 2, and 3)
The dataset also includes participants information sheet and readme files.</span
Multiple-choice testing: controlled and automatic influences of retrieval practice in an educational context
No full textPrevious studies have shown that taking an initial multiple-choice (MC) test produced both automatic influences (i.e., those that operate quickly, without effort, and requiring few attentional resources) and controlled influences (influences that are slower, applied more deliberately, sometimes oppose automatic processes, and require more attentional resources) on performance in a subsequent test. In this study, we examined the involvement of automatic and controlled processes on performance with MC questions that are related to earlier practice questions, but which have different correct answers. In Experiment 1, which was conducted online with MTurk, automatic influences tended to dominate responding despite using educational materials (SAT questions). Including repeated items in the final test (Experiment 1, 4) and increasing the time lags between questions (Experiment 2, 4) increased the automatic influence. However, in a genuine educational environment (university classroom), controlled influences tended to dominate responding instead, similar to what has been observed with cued recall (CR) final tests, but only when there are no repeated items. These controlled influences were enhanced by presenting the related questions back-to-back in the testing sequence (Experiment 2) but were unaffected by feedback on the initial test (Experiment 3). We conclude that performance on both MC and CR tests are affected by both automatic and controlled influences of retrieval practice, but that one type of influence will override the other depending on the presence of repeated items, the specific testing format, and examinees’ investment in scoring well
Chunks are not enough: the insufficiency of feature frequency-based explanations of artificial grammar learning (in special issue on music cognition and performance)
No full textTwo experiments tested chunk frequency explanations of artificial grammar learning which hold that classification performance is dependent on some metric derived from the frequency with which certain features occur within the letter string stimuli. Experiment 1 revealed that classification performance was affected by close graphemic similarity between specific training (e.g., MXRVXT) and test strings (e.g., MXRMXT), despite the fact that similar strings did not contain frequently occurring features (e.g., bigrams or trigrams). This effect was replicated in Experiment 2a and Experiment 2b demonstrated that substituting letters to make the consonant strings pronounceable (e.g., substituting X, R, and T, in the consonant string MXRMXT with Y, A, I, to produce MYAMYI) affected classification performance, despite the fact that objective measures of feature frequency were not altered. It is argued that models of classification that focus entirely on the frequency of features within the literal stimulus are insufficient, and that some allowance must be made for how the stimulus is encoded
The dark side of corrective feedback: Controlled and automatic influences of retrieval practice
No full textCorrective feedback is often touted as a critical benefit to learning, boosting testing effects when retrieval is poor and reducing negative testing effects. Here, we explore the dark side of corrective feedback. In 3 experiments, we found that corrective feedback on multiple-choice practice questions is later endorsed as the answer to related second-test questions, even though it is no longer correct. We describe this effect as an automatic influence of memory for feedback which participants fail to control. We explored how this influence is affected by the depth of retrieval during practice by successively increasing the retrieval demands of the multiple-choice practice test across the 3 experiments: Experiment 1 used a standard (select a single favorite option) format; Experiment 2 used ranking (rank order the options); and Experiment 3 used elimination testing (provide reasons for rejecting unchosen options). Increasing retrieval depth enhanced controlled influences on a cued-recall second test, evidenced by better accuracy on related versus new questions. However, it did not reduce the automatic influence on accuracy when the second test was multiple choice, partly because repeating the options between practice and test likely led to false recognition of related questions. Together, the results suggest that multiple-choice practice tests produce both automatic and controlled memory influences on related second-test questions, with retrieval depth at practice being an important determinant of the controlled influence. However, whether that controlled influence will override the automatic influence of memory for the corrective feedback also depends on the second test format
Repeated exposure to exemplars does not enhance implicit learning: A puzzle for models of learning and memory
No full textWe learn regularities in the world around us, frequently without conscious effort, a phenomenon known as implicit learning. These regularities are often impossible to verbalise. One example of implicit learning is the structural effect, in which participants learn a rule set combining two factors, such as lexical frequency and concreteness. Theories of implicit learning predict that repetition of exemplar words would result in improved learning of the rule set, increasing the magnitude of the structural effect. Over four experiments, we demonstrate that this is, in fact, not the case. In Experiments 1 and 2, three repetitions of exemplar words result in superior item memory, but no change in the magnitude of the structural effect, compared with individually presented words. In Experiments 3 and 4, the structural effect is shown to be invariant to five repetitions of exemplar words and at high and low numbers of exemplars. In all four experiments, participants were unable to describe the rule set underlying the structural effect. However, confidence ratings demonstrated sensitivity to the structure and this sensitivity, unlike endorsements, increased with strength. The results are discussed in reference to differentiation, structural versus judgement knowledge, and flexible learning systems
Corrective feedback on practice tests can sometimes impair later test performance
No full textRetrieval practice is generally good for long-term retention, but multiple-choice (MC) practice tests can introduce problems. For example, the lures gain familiarity during practice and can be erroneously endorsed on later tests (negative testing effect). In this talk, we describe a related problem caused not by lures, but by corrective feedback. Although normally good for learning, we have found that exposure to correct-answer feedback on MC practice tests increases the likelihood that the feedback is erroneously endorsed later on related final-test questions which have a different correct answer. However, at the same time, answering mul- tiple-choice questions during practice causes retrieval of accurate information about the options which opposes this bias. In a series of experiments, we explore the interplay of these opposing memory influences in both experimental and educational contexts. Depending on factors such as practice-test format, final-test format, the degree of false recognition, and the temporal proximity of related questions, final test performance can be facilitated or impaired. We discuss both the theoretical implications of these results as well as offering some practical recommendations
New improved gamma: enhancing the accuracy of Goodman–Kruskal’s gamma using ROC curves
No full textFor decades, researchers have debated the relative merits of different measures of people’s ability to discriminate the correctness of their own responses (resolution). The probabilistic approach, primarily led by Nelson, has advocated the Goodman–Kruskal gamma coefficient, an ordinal measure of association. The signal detection approach has advocated parametric measures of distance between the evidence distributions or the area under the receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve. Here we provide mathematical proof that the indices associated with the two approaches are far more similar than has previously been thought: The true value of gamma is equal to twice the true area under the ROC curve minus one. Using this insight, we report 36 simulations involving 3,600,000 virtual participants that pitted gamma estimated with the original concordance/discordance formula against gamma estimated via ROC curves and the trapezoidal rule. In all but five of our simulations—which system- atically varied resolution, the number of points on the metacognitive scale, and response bias—the ROC-based gamma estimate deviated less from the true value of gamma than did the traditional estimate. Consequently, we recommend using ROC curves to estimate gamma in the future
Generation failure: estimating metacognition in cued recall
No full textThree experiments examined generation, recognition, and response bias in the original encoding-specificity paradigm using the type 2 signal-detection analysis advocated by Higham (2002). Experiments 1 (pure-list design) and 2 (mixed-list design) indicated that some guidance regarding the strength of the associative relationship between the test cue and target greatly improved strong-cue target production relative to no guidance, and that this effect was attributable to improved generation, as well as recognition. Problems with generating candidates for response during standard cued recall was further shown in Experiment 3, where despite having the opportunity to provide multiple responses for each cue, participants’ ability to produce the targets remained poor. The results are discussed in terms of traditional and modern generate-recognize theory, metacognition, and dual-route models of recall
Believing details known to have been suggested
No full textIn 2 experiments, participants viewed a videotape of a simulated armed robbery, later answered misleading questions about it, and then finally completed a source monitoring test. For the test, participants were asked to indicate for each test item whether it was (1) seen in the video only, (2) read about in the questions only, (3) both seen and read about, (4) not remembered or (5) known to have occurred but the source was unclear. The latter response category was included on the test to remove source guessing and to ensure that attributions to "video," "questions" or "both" were caused by false conscious recollection. In Experiment 1, robust misinformation effects were obtained with both 1 and 48 hour delays between receiving misinformation and the memory test. However, suggested objects were more likely to receive "video only" attributions than nonsuggested objects only at long delay. Experiment 2 verified that it was the delay between receiving the misinformation and the test, and not the delay between viewing the video and receiving the misinformation, that determined the effect of delay. The results are explained by assuming that, at short delay, participants remembered reading about the suggested objects and could discount the "video only" category. However, despite accurately remembering the source of suggested information, the misinformation effect as measured by "both" responses was not diminished. Thus, accurate knowledge regarding the source of suggestion does not necessarily reduce false memory
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