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From the orchard to the virgin olive oil quality: a critical overview.
No full textNowadays the extra virgin olive oil (EVOO) marketable quality includes parameters describing the alteration state and assuring the oil genuineness, but it does not consider markers for the EVOO health and sensory quality. With regard to health aspects, mono-unsaturated fatty acids and hydrophilic phenols are the most important compounds characterizing the EVOO health properties, whereas volatile and phenolic substances can be considered impact components of the EVOO sensory quality. EVOO natural antioxidants include not only hydrophilic phenols but also tocopherols and carotenoids. Secoiridoids are exclusive of EVOO, furthermore they are the main phenols associated to the EVOO health proprieties. They also confer bitter and pungency EVOO taste sensory notes. The EVOO volatile compounds responsible for its typical flavour (i.e., "cut grass", "floral") are C5 and C6 saturated and unsaturated aldehydes, alcohols and esters. The concentrations of phenolic and volatile compounds and monounsaturated fatty acids in the EVOO, are strongly affected by several agronomic and technological conditions of its production. Cultivar, ripening stage of the fruit and cultural practices, such as irrigation, are the main agronomic factors affecting EVOO fatty acids, phenolic and volatile compositions with a significant impact on the sensory and the health quality. Among technological factors, crushing and malaxation are the critical points of the EVOO extraction, because of their influence on hydrophilic phenols and volatiles content. The crushers, destoner included, have shown differentiated effects on oxidoreductases activity and consequently on EVOO phenolic (polyphenoloxidases and peroxidases oxidize polyphenols) and volatile composition (lypoxigenase pathway produces C6 and C5 aldehydes, alcohols and esters) as well as, time, temperature and oxygen concentration during the malaxation. Besides new EVOO extraction technologies are also oriented to increase the value of their by-products with the use of animal feeds based on stoned pomaces for improving the sheep milk quality and the recovery of bioactive phenols from vegetation waters for producing functional foods among others
Productivity of olive trees with different water status and crop load
No full textA field experiment was conducted over two growing seasons to determine the combined effect of crop load and irrigation on yield components of olive trees (Olea europaea L. 'Leccino') planted at 6 m x 3.8 m in a sandy-clay soil. Different crop loads were established by manual thinning of fruits. Drip irrigation was managed to maintain pre-dawn leaf water-potentials (PLWP) within the following ranges: (i) higher than -1.1 MPa. (FI; fully irrigated); (ii) between -1.0 and -3.3 MPa (DI; deficit irrigated); or (iii) below -1.2 MPa, but not lower than -4.2 MPa (SI; severe deficit irrigated). The irrigation period lasted from 6-16 weeks after full bloom (AFB) in 2003, and from 5-19 weeks AFB in 2004. In 2003, full bloom was on 26 May; in 2004, it was on 3 June. Neither irrigation regime nor crop load affected flowering or flower quality the following Spring. The combined fruit yields [on a fresh weight (FW) basis] over both years in Sl and DI trees were 49.0% and 81.6% of FI trees, respectively. The oil yields of Sl and DI trees were 52.5% and 81.2% of FI trees, respectively. Fruit FWs in FI trees were greater than those of DI or SI trees at 8 weeks AFB. At harvest, FI trees bore the largest fruits, and Sl trees the smallest fruits. The FWs of individual fruits at harvest in the FI and DI treatments decreased as crop load increased, but no such relationship was apparent for SI trees. The oil content of the mesocarp increased as PLWP increased from approx. -3.5 MPa to -1.5 MPa. The oil content of FI trees at harvest decreased from 53.1% to 45.7% dry weight as fresh fruit yield increased from 5-25 kg dm(-2) trunk cross-sectional area. However, crop load did not have any effect on the oil content of the mesocarp in DI trees. Fruit maturation was delayed by irrigation. Maturation index also decreased (indicating delayed maturation) as the crop load on FI or DI trees increased, but did not vary with crop level in SI trees
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