1,721,058 research outputs found
A simple method to convert sink particles into stars
No full textHydrodynamical simulations of star formation often do not possess the dynamic range needed to fully resolve the build-up of individual stars and star clusters, and thus have to resort to sub-grid models. A popular way to do this is by introducing Lagrangian sink particles, which replace contracting high-density regions at the point where the resolution limit is reached. A common problem then is how to assign fundamental stellar properties to sink particles, such as the distribution of stellar masses. We present a new and simple statistical method to assign stellar contents to sink particles. Once the stellar content is specified, it can be used to determine a sink particle's radiative output, supernovae rate or other feedback parameters that may be required in the calculations. Advantages of our method are: (i) it is simple to implement; (ii) it guarantees that the obtained stellar populations are good samples of the initial mass function; (iii) it can easily deal with infalling mass accreted at later times; and (iv) it does not put restrictions on the sink particles' masses in order to be used. The method works very well for sink particles that represent large star clusters and for which the stellar mass function is well sampled, but can also handle the transition to sink particles that represent a small number of stars
A theoretical explanation for the Central Molecular Zone asymmetry
No full textIt has been known for more than 30 yr that the distribution of molecular gas in the innermost 300 parsecs of the Milky Way, the Central Molecular Zone, is strongly asymmetric. Indeed, approximately three quarters of molecular emission come from positive longitudes, and only one quarter from negative longitudes. However, despite much theoretical effort, the origin of this asymmetry has remained a mystery. Here, we show that the asymmetry can be neatly explained by unsteady flow of gas in a barred potential. We use high-resolution 3D hydrodynamical simulations coupled to a state-of-the-art chemical network. Despite the initial conditions and the bar potential being point symmetric with respect to the Galactic Centre, asymmetries develop spontaneously due to the combination of a hydrodynamical instability known as the 'wiggle instability' and the thermal instability. The observed asymmetry must be transient: observations made tens of megayears in the past or in the future would often show an asymmetry in the opposite sense. Fluctuations of amplitude comparable to the observed asymmetry occur for a large fraction of time in our simulations, and suggest that the present is not an exceptional moment in the life of our Galaxy
Simulations of the Milky Way's Central Molecular Zone - II. Star formation
No full textThe Milky Way's Central Molecular Zone (CMZ) has emerged in recent years as a unique laboratory for the study of star formation. Here we use the simulations presented in Tress et al. to investigate star formation in the CMZ. These simulations resolve the structure of the interstellar medium at sub-parsec resolution while also including the large-scale flow in which the CMZ is embedded. Our main findings are as follows. (1) While most of the star formation happens in the CMZ ring at R greater than or similar to 100 pc, a significant amount also occurs closer to Sgr A* at R less than or similar to 10 pc. (2) Most of the star formation in the CMZ happens downstream of the apocentres, consistent with the 'pearls-on-a-string' scenario, and in contrast to the notion that an absolute evolutionary timeline of star formation is triggered by pericentre passage. (3) Within the time-scale of our simulations (similar to 100 Myr), the depletion time of the CMZ is constant within a factor of similar to 2. This suggests that variations in the star formation rate are primarily driven by variations in the mass of the CMZ, caused, for example, by active galactic nuclei (AGN) feedback or externally induced changes in the bar-driven inflow rate, and not by variations in the depletion time. (4) We study the trajectories of newly born stars in our simulations. We find several examples that have age and 3D velocity compatible with those of the Arches and Quintuplet clusters. Our simulations suggest that these prominent clusters originated near the collision sites where the bar-driven inflow accretes on to the CMZ, at symmetrical locations with respect to the Galactic Centre, and that they have already decoupled from the gas in which they were born
Dynamically Driven Inflow onto the Galactic Center and its Effect upon Molecular Clouds
No full textThe Galactic bar plays a critical role in the evolution of the Milky Way's Central Molecular Zone (CMZ), driving gas toward the Galactic Center via gas flows known as dust lanes. To explore the interaction between the CMZ and the dust lanes, we run hydrodynamic simulations in arepo, modeling the potential of the Milky Way's bar in the absence of gas self-gravity and star formation physics, and we study the flows of mass using Monte Carlo tracer particles. We estimate the efficiency of the inflow via the dust lanes, finding that only about a third (30% +/- 12%) of the dust lanes' mass initially accretes onto the CMZ, while the rest overshoots and accretes later. Given observational estimates of the amount of gas within the Milky Way's dust lanes, this suggests that the true total inflow rate onto the CMZ is 0.8 +/- 0.6 M (circle dot) yr(-1). Clouds in this simulated CMZ have sudden peaks in their average density near the apocenter, where they undergo violent collisions with inflowing material. While these clouds tend to counter-rotate due to shear, co-rotating clouds occasionally occur due to the injection of momentum from collisions with inflowing material (similar to 52% are strongly counter-rotating, and similar to 7% are strongly co-rotating of the 44 cloud sample). We investigate the formation and evolution of these clouds, finding that they are fed by many discrete inflow events, providing a consistent source of gas to CMZ clouds even as they collapse and form stars
Is the molecular KS relationship universal down to low metallicities?
No full textIn recent years, it has been speculated that in extreme low-metallicity galactic environments, stars form in regions that lack H-2. In this paper, we investigate how changing the metallicity and ultraviolet (UV) field strength of a galaxy affects the star formation within, and the molecular gas Kennicutt-Schmidt (KS) relation. Using extremely high-resolution AREPO simulations of isolated dwarf galaxies, we independently vary the metallicity and UV field to between 1 per cent and 10 per cent solar neighbourhood values. We include a non-equilibrium, time-dependent chemical network to model the molecular composition of the interstellar medium and include the effects of gas shielding from an ambient UV field. Crucially, our simulations directly model the gravitational collapse of gas into star-forming clumps and cores and their subsequent accretion using sink particles. In this first publication, we find that reducing the metallicity and UV field by a factor of 10 has no effect on star formation and minimal effect on the cold, dense star-forming gas. The cold gas depletion times are almost an order of magnitude longer than the molecular gas depletion time due to the presence of star formation in HI dominated cold gas. We study the H-2 KS relationship that arises naturally within the simulations and find a near-linear power-law index of N = 1.09 +/- 0.014 in our fiducial 10 per cent solar metallicity model. As the metallicity and UV field are reduced, this becomes moderately steeper, with a slope of N = 1.24 +/- 0.022 for our 1 per cent solar metallicity and 1 per cent solar UV field model
A dynamical mechanism for the origin of nuclear rings
No full textoai:irinsubria.uninsubria.it:11383/2170746We develop a dynamical theory for the origin of nuclear rings in barred galaxies. In analogy with the standard theory of accretion discs, our theory is based on shear viscous forces among nested annuli of gas. However, the fact that gas follows non-circular orbits in an external barred potential has profound consequences: it creates a region of reverse shear in which it is energetically favourable to form a stable ring that does not spread despite dissipation. Our theory allows us to approximately predict the size of the ring given the underlying gravitational potential. The size of the ring is loosely related to the location of the Inner Lindblad Resonance in the epicyclic approximation, but the predicted location ismore accurate and is also valid for strongly barred potentials. By comparing analytical predictions with the results of hydrodynamical simulations, we find that our theory provides a viable mechanism for ring formation if the effective sound speed of the gas is low (c(s) less than or similar to 1km s(-1)), but that nuclear spirals/shocks created by pressure destroy the ring when the sound speed is high (c(s) similar or equal to 10 km s(-1)). We conclude that whether this mechanism for ring formation is relevant for real galaxies ultimately depends on the effective equation of state of the interstellar medium (ISM). Promising confirmation comes from simulations in which the ISM is modelled using state-of-the-art cooling functions coupled to live chemical networks, but more tests are needed regarding the role of turbulence driven by stellar feedback. If the mechanism is relevant in real galaxies, it could provide a powerful tool to constrain the gravitational potential, in particular the bar pattern speed
Simulations of the star-forming molecular gas in an interacting M51-like galaxy
No full textWe present here the first of a series of papers aimed at better understanding the evolution and properties of giant molecular clouds (GMCs) in a galactic context. We perform high-resolution, three-dimensional AREPO simulations of an interacting galaxy inspired by the well-observed M51 galaxy. Our fiducial simulations include a non-equilibrium, time-dependent, chemical network that follows the evolution of atomic and molecular hydrogen as well as carbon and oxygen self-consistently. Our calculations also treat gas self-gravity and subsequent star formation (described by sink particles), and coupled supernova feedback. In the densest parts of the simulated interstellar medium (ISM), we reach sub-parsec resolution, granting us the ability to resolve individual GMCs and their formation and destruction self-consistently throughout the galaxy. In this initial work, we focus on the general properties of the ISM with a particular focus on the cold star-forming gas. We discuss the role of the interaction with the companion galaxy in generating cold molecular gas and controlling stellar birth. We find that while the interaction drives large-scale gas flows and induces spiral arms in the galaxy, it is of secondary importance in determining gas fractions in the different ISM phases and the overall star formation rate. The behaviour of the gas on small GMC scales instead is mostly controlled by the self-regulating property of the ISM driven by coupled feedback
Simulations of the Milky Way's central molecular zone - I. Gas dynamics
No full textWe use hydrodynamical simulations to study the Milky Way's central molecular zone (CMZ). The simulations include a non-equilibrium chemical network, the gas self-gravity, star formation, and supernova feedback. We resolve the structure of the interstellar medium at sub-parsec resolution while also capturing the interaction between the CMZ and the bar-driven large-scale flow out to R similar to 5 kpc. Our main findings are as follows: (1) The distinction between inner (R less than or similar to 120 pc) and outer (120 less than or similar to R less than or similar to 450 pc) CMZ that is sometimes proposed in the literature is unnecessary. Instead, the CMZ is best described as single structure, namely a star-forming ring with outer radius R similar or equal to 200 pc which includes the 1.3 degrees complex and which is directly interacting with the dust lanes that mediate the bar-driven inflow. (2) This accretion can induce a significant tilt of the CMZ out of the plane. A tilted CMZ might provide an alternative explanation to the infinity-shaped structure identified in Herschel data by Molinari et al. (3) The bar in our simulation efficiently drives an inflow from the Galactic disc (R similar or equal to 3 kpc) down to the CMZ (R similar or equal to 200 pc) of the order of 1 M o yr I , consistent with observational determinations. (4) Supernova feedback can drive an inflow from the CMZ inwards towards the circumnuclear disc of the order of -0.03 M-circle dot yr(-1). (5) We give a new interpretation for the 3D placement of the 20 and 50 km s(-1) clouds, according to which they are close (R less than or similar to 30 pc) to the Galactic Centre, but are also connected to the larger scale streams at R greater than or similar to 100 pc
ALMA Uncovers Highly Filamentary Structure toward the Sgr E Region
Full text linkWe report on the discovery of linear filaments observed in the CO(1-0) emission for a ∼2′ field of view toward the Sgr E star-forming region, centered at (l, b) = (358.°720, 0.°011). The Sgr E region is thought to be at the turbulent intersection of the “far dust lane” associated with the Galactic bar and the Central Molecular Zone (CMZ). This region is subject to strong accelerations, which are generally thought to inhibit star formation, yet Sgr E contains a large number of H ii regions. We present 12CO(1-0), 13CO(1-0), and C18O(1-0) spectral line observations from the Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array and provide measurements of the physical and kinematic properties for two of the brightest filaments. These filaments have widths (FWHMs) of ∼0.1 pc and are oriented nearly parallel to the Galactic plane, with angles from the Galactic plane of ∼2°. The filaments are elongated, with lower-limit aspect ratios of ∼5:1. For both filaments, we detect two distinct velocity components that are separated by about 15 km s−1. In the C18O spectral line data, with ∼0.09 pc spatial resolution, we find that these velocity components have relatively narrow (∼1-2 km s−1) FWHM line widths when compared to other sources toward the Galactic center. The properties of these filaments suggest that the gas in the Sgr E complex is being “stretched,” as it is rapidly accelerated by the gravitational field of the Galactic bar while falling toward the CMZ, a result that could provide insights into the extreme environment surrounding this region and the large-scale processes that fuel this environment
The Cloud Factory II: gravoturbulent kinematics of resolved molecular clouds in a galactic potential
No full textWe present a statistical analysis of the gravoturbulent velocity fluctuations in molecular cloud complexes extracted from our 'Cloud Factory' Galactic-scale interstellar medium (ISM) simulation suite. For this purpose, we produce non-local thermodynamic equilibrium (CO)-C-12 J = 1 - 0 synthetic observations and apply the principal component analysis (PCA) reduction technique on a representative sample of cloud complexes. The velocity fluctuations are self-consistently generated by different physical mechanisms at play in our simulations, which include Galactic-scale forces, gas self-gravity, and supernova feedback. The statistical analysis suggests that, even though purely gravitational effects are necessary to reproduce standard observational laws, they are not sufficient in most cases. We show that the extra injection of energy from supernova explosions plays a key role in establishing the global turbulent field and the local dynamics and morphology of molecular clouds. Additionally, we characterize structure function scaling parameters as a result of cloud environmental conditions: some of the complexes are immersed in diffuse (interarm) or dense (spiral-arm) environments, and others are influenced by embedded or external supernovae. In quiescent regions, we obtain time-evolving trajectories of scaling parameters driven by gravitational collapse and supersonic turbulent flows. Our findings suggest that a PCA-based statistical study is a robust method to diagnose the physical mechanisms that drive the gravoturbulent properties of molecular clouds. Also, we present a new open source module, the PCAFACTORY, which smartly performs PCA to extract velocity structure functions from simulated or real data of the ISM in a user-friendly way
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