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Paleonutrition and Paleopathology: Food ad Disease at the Renaissance Courts of Naples and Florence
No full textCarbon and Nitrogen stable isotope analysis of bone collagen is at present an almost routine method in the study of ancient diets. By stable isotope analysis it is possible to determine directly the type of diet of an individual and consequently of a population group. Therefore, at regional levels, the similarities and differences in the diet of individuals within an entire population can be easily detected (Katzenberg, 2000). This is a preliminary report of a more complex study, still in course, of 25 individuals from the Basilica of S. Domenico Maggiore in Naples (15th-17th centuries) (Fornaciari, 1999, 2006) and of 20 individuals from the Medici Chapels of the
Basilica of S. Lorenzo in Florence (16th-17th centuries) (Fornaciari, et al, 2007). The Italian Renaissance princes had a much wider choice of food than other classes (Grieco, 1999). For this reason their diet should not be considered typical of the wealthy class as a whole, in the same way as the isotopic data observed in the population groups sampled for this study may not be representative for all the groups of the elite Italian society. Historical records reveal that after meat and wine, which constituted the central nucleus of the nobles’ diet, eggs and cheese also appear, although much less frequently (Riera Melis, 1999). Th ese two types of food, with high protein content, were combined with meat on normal days and alternated with fish on penitential occasions. In the aristocratic dietary regimen, vegetables occupied a secondary place, with almost total absence of fruit (Grieco, 1999). The isotope values obtained are remarkably similar to those published for other late Medieval and post-Medieval
populations in England and clearly refl ect the large intake not only of meat but also of marine foods by the Italian aristocratic classes, especially from southern Italy, in the 15th-17th centuries (Fornaciari, 2008). Other foods high in proteins and enriched in nitrogen, such as freshwater fi sh, birds (and their eggs), or mollusks are likely to have provided smaller contributions. Given the large variety of dietary resources attested by historical documents, this conclusion can hardly be surprising. I present three “clinical” cases, important from paleonutritional and paleopathological point of view.
Th e left foot of Ferdinando I de’ Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany (1549-1609), shows a scoped-out defect located at the peri-articular and articular surface of the interphalangeal joint of the hallux dorsum, with partial destruction of the sub-chondral plate; the lesion, revealing at X-ray an evident sclerotic margin, involves both the bones of the joint and is typical of chronic gout (Fornaciari et al, 2007). High values of δ15N demonstrate a diet very rich in meat from terrestrial animals. δ13C values show a minor integration with foods of marine origin (fi sh) (Fornaciari, 2008). This isotopic profile well correlates with the frequent attacks of gout referred by court chroniclers and with the diagnosis of chronic gout of the left big toe revealed by the paleopathological study.
The skull of Don Filippino de’ Medici (1577-1582), eldest son of the Grand Duke Francesco I, reveals non-severe external hydrocephaly, as witnessed by the macroscopic and radiological study, and by a 16th century autopsy report. Rickets also worsened this pathological condition (Fornaciari et al., 2007). The δ15N isotope value of don Filippino is anomalous and intermediate between the very high levels of breast-feeding babies and those of post-weaning children. This value reveals a diet very rich in proteins of animal origin. If we plot the δ15N and δ13C values together, we can see that don Filippino shows a very anomalous and isolated position. Isotopic signals reveal
a strong intake of terrestrial animal proteins, while the level of marine proteins falls within the normal range of the group (Fornaciari, 2008). We are in front of a really unbalanced diet of the child, with regard to either meat or milk. On the basis of the historical, paleonutritional and paleopathological data we can speculate about the life of don Filippino. The eldest son of the Grand Duke, the hereditary prince, was a frail and sickly child, with frequent indispositions and persistent fevers, aff ected by rickets and a light form of hydrocephaly. Probably for this reason, his parents and the court doctors worried about the child’s health, and forced him to eat
more meat, considered at that time “the fi rst source of physical
strength”(Riera-Melis, 1999). Th is fact would explain the presence
of this isotopic signal in the bones of the small prince.
Autopsy of the mummy of Ferrante I d’Aragona, king of Naples (1431-1494), revealed a moderately differentiated colon adenocarcinoma extensively infi ltrating the muscles of the small pelvis. Histology showed exceptionally well preserved neoplastic cells, disposed in cords and solid nests or forming pseudo-glandular lumina, disseminated in a fibrous tissue containing striated muscular fi bres. Th e cells appeared tall and crowded, with abundant cytoplasm and quite regular hyperchromatic nuclei (Fornaciari et al, 1993). The excellent, almost exceptional preservation of the histological structure of this unique tumor is probably due to the very dry microclimatic conditions of the church and certainly to the preservation substances used for embalming. Ancient DNA amplification of the neoplastic cells by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) in the mummy of Ferrante I evidenced a typical point mutation of the K-ras gene codon 12 (Marchetti, et al, 1996; Falchetti, et al. 2006). The recorded genetic change represents the most frequent mutation of the K-ras gene in sporadic colorectal cancer and is characteristic of the eff ects of a number of “alkylating” agents. Th e N-nitroso compounds (NOC) and their precursors, have been widely
investigated for their diff usion and well known relevance in gastro-intestinal cancerogenesis. In particular the carcinogenic properties of N-nitroso compounds (NOC) are also associated with their ability to “alkylate” DNA. Recent studies have focused on the importance of endogenous NOC (Soussi, et al, 2007). The diet contains many constituents which can be nitrosated in the gastrointestinal tract (especially in the stomach). Increased intake of red meat induces a significant (3-fold) increase of faecal N-nitroso compound (NOC) levels, with a range of exposure in the faeces similar to that from tobacco-specific NOC in cigarette smokers. Th is endogenous formation of NOC in the human colon well explains the association between red meat and colorectal cancer (Fornaciari, et al, 1999).
The portraits of Ferrante, both sculptures and pictures, reveal growing obesity from youth to maturity. Court chroniclers report on the strong preference of the king for red meat, especially game. Examination of the mummy of Ferrante, even if severely damaged by a fi re in 1509, confirms his obesity. Histology reveals severe arteriosclerosis of the carotid arteries. Finally, the paleonutritional data, with their high level of δ15N, show a massive intake of animal proteins (meat). The alimentary “environment” of the Neapolitan court of the XV century and the sovereign’s habits, with his abundance of natural endogenous alkylating agents, can well explain the K-ras mutation causing the tumor which killed the Aragonese
king over fi ve centuries ago (Fornaciari, et al, 1999).
In conclusion, the investigation into the diet of the Renaissance aristocratic classes in Italy well demonstrates the potential of the studies on Carbon and Nitrogen stable isotope analysis in archeology and paleopathology.
REFERENCES
1. Falchetti M, Lupi R, Ottini L. Molecular analysis of a colorectal carcinoma from a mummy of the XVth century. Journal of History of Medicine. 2006;18:943-951.
2. Fornaciari G, Castagna M, Naccarato AG, Tognetti A, Collecchi P, Bevilacqua G. Adenocarcinoma in the mummy of Ferrante I of Aragon, King of Naples (1431-1494). Paleopathology Newsletter. 1993;82:7-11.
3. Fornaciari G, Marchetti A, Pellegrini S, Ciranni R. K-ras mutation in the tumour of King Ferrante I of Aragon (1431-1494) and environmental mutagens at the Aragonese court of Naples. International Journal of Osteoarcheology. 1999;9:297-304.
4. Fornaciari G. Renaissance mummies in Italy. Medicina nei Secoli. 1999;11:85-105.
5. Fornaciari G. Le mummie aragonesi in San Domenico Maggiore di Napoli. Medicina nei Secoli. 2006;18:875-896.
6. Fornaciari G, Vitiello A, Giusiani S, Giuffra V, Fornaciari A, Villari N. The Medici Project: fi rst anthropological and paleopathological results of the exploration of the Medici tombs in Florence. Medicina nei Secoli. 2007;19:521-544.
7. Fornaciari G. Food and disease at the Renaissance courts of Naples and Florence: a paleonutritional study. Appetite. 2008. In press.
8. Grieco AJ. Food and social classes in late Medieval and Renaissance Italy. In: Flandrin JL, Montanari M, editors. Food. A culinary history from Antiquity to the Present. New York: Columbia University Press; 1999. p. 302-312
9. Katzenberg MA. Stable isotope analysis: a tool for studying past diet, demography, and life history. In: Katzenberg MA, Saunders SR, editors. Biological anthropology of the human skeleton. New York: Wiley-Liss; 2000. p. 305-327.
10. Marchetti A, Pellegrini S, Bevilacqua G, Fornaciari G. Kras mutation in the tumor of Ferrante I of Aragon, King of Naples (1431-1494). The Lancet. 1996;347:1272.
11. Soussi T, Wiman KG. Shaping genetic alterations in human cancer: the p53 mutation paradigm. Cancer Cell. 2007;12:303-12.
12. Riera-Melis A. Society, food and Feudalism. In: Flandrin JL, Montanari M, editors. Food. A culinary history from Antiquity to the Present. New York: Columbia University Press; 1999. p. 251-267
Fornaciari, Raffaello
No full textProfilo bio-bibliografico e critico del letterato, grammatico e studioso di letteratura Raffaello Fornaciari(1837-1921
Verbale della ricognizione e dello studio preliminare dei resti scheletrici attribuiti a Liutprando (29-31 gennaio 2018)
No full textComponenti della missione: prof. Gino Fornaciari, prof.ssa Valentina Giuf- fra, dott.ssa Simona Minozzi, dott. Antonio Fornaciari, dott. Raffaele Gaeta, dott.ssa Giulia Riccomi (dal 30 gennaio).
Il giorno 29 gennaio 2018, alle ore 11.30, l’équipe dell’Università di Pisa giunge alla basilica di San Pietro in Ciel d’Oro, dove incontra il prof. Saverio Lomartire, organizzatore dell’intervento di ricognizione dei resti scheletrici at- tribuiti a Liutprando, padre Baldoni, priore della basilica, la prof.ssa Maria Te- resa Mazzilli Savini, coordinatrice del progetto, il dott. Lorenzo Pinna insieme all’operatore televisivo Marius Daz.
Sono quindi presenti all’inizio delle operazioni di ricognizione paleopa- tologica le seguenti persone: prof. Gino Fornaciari, direttore scientifico della Divisione di Paleopatologia dell’Università di Pisa; prof.ssa Valentina Giuffra, direttore della Divisione di Paleopatologia dell’Università di Pisa; dott. Antonio Fornaciari, archeologo funerario, assegnista di ricerca della Divisione di Paleopatologia dell’Università di Pisa; dott. Raffaele Gaeta, paleopatologo, dottorando della Divisione di Paleopatologia dell’Università di Pisa; dott.ssa Simona Mi- nozzi, antropologa fisica, assegnista di ricerca della Divisione di Paleopatologia dell’Università di Pisa; prof. Saverio Lomartire dell’Università del Piemonte Orientale, direttore scientifico della ricognizione; prof.ssa Maria Teresa Mazzil- li Savini, storica dell’arte medievale del Comitato Pavia Città di Sant’Agostino; padre Antonio Baldoni, priore della basilica di San Pietro in Ciel d’Oro; dott. Lorenzo Pinna, regista televisivo della trasmissione “Superquark” (rai); Marius Daz, operatore televisivo di “Superquark”.
presenti il dott. Lorenzo Pinna e un operatore per le riprese televisive. Mentre la dott.ssa Minozzi prosegue il lavoro di identificazione e restauro dei reperti osteologici, il dott. Fornaciari, coadiuvato dal dott. Gaeta, procede con la documentazione fotografica dei reperti ossei identificati. Il prof. Fornaciari e la prof.ssa Giuffra, con il dott. Gaeta, si assentano dalle ore 10 alle ore 16, lasciando che la dott.ssa Minozzi e il dott. Fornaciari proseguano il lavoro di identificazione, restauro e studio dei reperti ossei.
Alle ore 14.00 il dott. Fornaciari e la dott.ssa Minozzi procedono al recupero dei pochi frammenti ossei fuoriusciti dalla cassetta al momento dell’aper- tura del loculo nella basilica di San Pietro in Ciel d’Oro; sono contestualmente recuperati tutti i frammenti di legno e il sedimento residuo misto a calcinacci presente nel loculo. Il recupero è stato filmato dagli operatori televisivi e docu-mentato fotograficamente. Il giorno 30 gennaio 2018, alle ore 8.30 riprende il lavoro di analisi dei resti scheletrici e prosegue per tutta la giornata fino alle ore 19.30 (con breve inter- ruzione per il pranzo dalle 13.00 alle 14.00), da parte dell’équipe di Pisa. Sono presenti il dott. Lorenzo Pinna e un operatore per le riprese televisive. Mentre la dott.ssa Minozzi prosegue il lavoro di identificazione e restauro dei reperti osteologici, il dott. Fornaciari, coadiuvato dal dott. Gaeta, procede con la documentazione fotografica dei reperti ossei identificati. Il prof. Fornaciari e la prof.ssa Giuffra, con il dott. Gaeta, si assentano dalle ore 10 alle ore 16, lasciando che la dott.ssa Minozzi e il dott. Fornaciari proseguano il lavoro di identificazione, restauro e studio dei reperti ossei.
Alle ore 14.00 il dott. Fornaciari e la dott.ssa Minozzi procedono al recupero dei pochi frammenti ossei fuoriusciti dalla cassetta al momento dell’apertura del loculo nella basilica di San Pietro in Ciel d’Oro; sono contestualmente recuperati tutti i frammenti di legno e il sedimento residuo misto a calcinacci presente nel loculo. Il recupero è stato filmato dagli operatori televisivi e documentato fotograficamente.
Alle ore 17.30 si aggiunge al gruppo di lavoro la dott.ssa Giulia Riccomi, dottoranda della Divisione di Paleopatologia dell’Università di Pisa, e prosegue il lavoro di restauro dei reperti osteologici.
Il giorno 31 gennaio 2018, alle ore 8.00 il prof. Fornaciari, la prof.ssa Giuffra, il dott. Gaeta e il dott. Fornaciari, accompagnati dal prof. Lomartire, si recano al Policlinico “San Matteo” di Pavia presso il reparto radiologico diretto dal prof. Fabrizio Calliada, dove il tecnico Travaglini esegue indagini radio- diagnostiche (tc e rx) sui resti scheletrici selezionati tra quelli più integri o che mostravano interesse paleopatologico. Restano in sede le dott.sse Minozzi e Riccomi che continuano lo studio antropologico e la compilazione delle schede antropologiche.
Al ritorno, vengono eseguiti i prelievi di alcuni minuti frammenti ossei e di due denti al fine di effettuare la datazione 14C e le analisi chimiche e molecolari. In particolare sono stati prelevati: due denti molari mandibolari, un piccolo campione di tartaro che rivestiva alcuni denti, la rocca petrosa dell’osso tempo- rale, un frammento della tibia patologica e un frammento delle altre due tibie di sinistra. Altri tre frammenti di diafisi di osso lungo non meglio identificabile vengono prescelti per essere consegnati al prof. Lomartire in vista di comple- menti diagnostici da definire sulla base delle risultanze dei primi esami, oltre che per essere consegnati al prof. Mazzarello e da destinarsi al Museo per la Storia della Medicina dell’Università di Pavia. Tutte le attività condotte dal 29 al 31 gennaio 2018 sono state riprese dagli operatori televisivi guidati da Lorenzo Pinna (“Superquark”) e documentate fo- tograficamente secondo gli accordi con i coordinatori del progetto.
Lo studio preliminare sul campo è terminato il 31 gennaio 2018 alle ore.15.00. Tutti gli elementi scheletrici, dopo l’identificazione ed il restauro, sono stati fotografati e, al termine dello studio, sono stati collocati in buste di plastica suddivisi per distretto anatomico. Sulla busta è stata riportata, con pennarello indelebile, l’indicazione relativa al contenuto e la data. Infine, i resti ossei, una volta imballati, sono stati consegnati al priore del convento di San Pietro in Ciel d’Oro per essere conservati in un locale giudicato idoneo dalla restauratri- ce presente, Cinzia Parnigoni, titolare del laboratorio Arte r.o.s.a. Restauro di Milano, e dalla sua collaboratrice Veronica Alampi.
Studio antropologico preliminare
Le ossa contenute nella cassetta sono risultate molto frammentate ed in cattivo stato di conservazione (Figura 6). Su alcune di esse era stata apposta, in occasione della precedente riesumazione, un’etichetta con il nome che le identi- ficava; alcuni segmenti ossei mostravano tracce di colla, per tentativi di restauro. Le identificazioni relative sono risultate quasi tutte corrette, anche per fram- menti minuti.
Malgrado l’elevata frammentazione, è stato possibile identificare la maggior parte dei frammenti ossei e suddividerli nei distretti anatomici di appartenenza. Quando possibile si è provveduto al restauro ed alla ricostituzione dei singoli elementi utilizzando colla vinilica.
L’esame antropologico ha evidenziato la presenza di ossa umane attribuibili ad almeno un individuo adulto di sesso maschile, il cui scheletro è incompleto, dal momento che manca di alcuni elementi anatomici, riferibili in particolare alle ossa del tronco.
Del cranio restano solo pochi frammenti, tra cui le due rocche pe- trose dell’osso temporale ed alcuni denti mascellari e mandibolari, per lo più isolati. I denti sono di medie dimensioni con un’usura delle superfici occlusali che suggerisce un’età alla morte tra 35 e 50 anni. Complessivamente i resti cranici sembrano appartenere ad un individuo adulto di sesso maschile, di medie dimensioni.
Lo scheletro del tronco è rappresentato da due frammenti della clavicola destra, robusta e con inserzioni muscolari marcate, e da pochi frammenti di coste. In un frammento di costa si osserva parzialmente l’estremità sternale che suggerisce un’età di 40-50 anni. Della colonna restano solo due vertebre, di dimensioni non cospicue e senza artrosi, ed alcuni frammenti di sacro. Le ossa del bacino sono rappresentate da un ampio acetabolo di sinistra, da alcuni frammenti dell’ala iliaca e dalla sinfisi pubica, tutti compatibili con un individuo robusto di sesso maschile tra i 40 e i 50 anni, in base alle modificazioni della superficie auricolare e della sinfisi pubica.
Lo scheletro appendicolare è rappresentato da entrambi gli omeri, piuttosto grandi e robusti, con sviluppo molto forte di alcune inserzioni muscolari. Dell’avambraccio restano solo le due epifisi, prossimale e distale, del radio destro, senza artrosi sulle superfici articolari. Della mano restano solo il terzo e quarto metacarpale di destra, senza alterazioni.
Gli arti inferiori sono rappresentati da un femore destro quasi completo e da diversi frammenti attribuibili al femore controlaterale, di dimensioni medio-grandi e con inserzioni muscolari forti, appartenenti ad un individuo adulto di sesso maschile. La testa del femore è compatibile per dimensioni con l’acetabolo del bacino. Sono inoltre presenti numerosi frammenti di femore difficilmente attribuibili, ma la ricostruzione ed il restauro dei frammenti relativi alla linea aspra ha permesso di individuare la presenza di un’altra coppia di femori, attribuibili ad un secondo individuo adulto, di probabile sesso maschile e con la medesima robustezza del primo.
Per quanto riguarda la tibia, la situazione è più complessa, in quanto è presente una tibia sinistra patologica, con alcuni frammenti della tibia controlaterale di destra, insieme a frammenti attribuibili ad altre due tibie di sinistra (denominate a, b e c). Complessivamente quindi, sono presenti tre tibie di sinistra, di cui una patologica e due tibie rappresentate da segmenti di diafisi ed epifisi distali.
La tibia patologica presenta il terzo superiore della diafisi completamente deformato ed ingrossato in seguito agli esiti di una grave forma di osteomielite. La riparazione ossea è evidente e la presenza di una depressione circolare dal diametro di circa 10 mm nel punto di massimo ispessimento potrebbe rappre- sentare la traccia lasciata da un’arma da punta, che causò la perforazione dell’os- so e la successiva infezione che produsse l’osteomielite. Il processo riparativo ha comunque portato alla guarigione della lesione prima del decesso, che dovrebbe essere avvenuto a non molta distanza dall’evento traumatico (2 anni al massimo).
Delle fibule restano l’estremità distale di destra ed alcuni segmenti di diafisi di entrambi i lati. Dei piedi restano l’astragalo ed il calcagno di sinistra ed alcuni metatarsali di medie dimensioni.
In conclusione, la maggior parte dei resti sono attribuibili ad un individuo di sesso maschile di dimensioni medio-grandi, robusto e con inserzioni muscolari forti, e con un’età alla morte tra i 40 e i 50 anni. Risultano presenti anche un secondo individuo di dimensioni più piccole e di età più avanzata, ma sempre di sesso maschile e con inserzioni muscolari forti, e un terzo individuo adulto di dimensioni simili al secondo
Fornaciari, Luigi
No full textProfilo bio-bibliografico e critico del letterato Luigi Fornaciari (1798-1858
Preface
Full text linkThe International Symposium on Reconfigurable Communication-centric Systemson-Chip (ReCoSoC) is a reference event for research in the areas of reconfigurable
and communication-centric systems-on-chip. Its goal is to encourage technical
and scientific interactions of both academic and industrial participants through
presentations and special sessions reporting the latest advances in related areas. Its philosophy is to keep an informal and dynamic nature, aiming to form a
community and embrace new members, and striving to provide positive and constructive feedback in all stages of its program: paper reviews, paper and keynote
presentations and informal discussions during the event.
ReCoSoC was created as a workshop in 2005, through a collaboration between
TU Darmstadt and LIRMM/Univ. Montpellier. In the ensuing years, it has
grown to become a forum covering the rapidly growing area of reconfigurable
computing encompassing both the architectures and the software layers sitting
on top of them. One of the goals of ReCoSoC is to bring together researchers
and practitioners from both academia and industry around the world to create
a valuable environment for cross-fertilization of ideas. Over the past decade and
a half, ReCoSoC has established itself as a reference international event and has
been held in five European countries.
In 2019, ReCoSoC takes place in the historic city of York and the program includes 15 paper presentations, three keynotes and of one invited speaker, in addition to a co-located workshop: ReCoCyPS - Reconfigurable and CommunicationCentric Cyber-Physical Systems. The work of several volunteers was necessary to
make it possible, so we would like to thank the steering committee, the program
committee, all authors, speakers and local organisers for their efforts.
Program Co-Chairs
William Fornaciari (Politecnico di Milano, Milano, IT)
David Novo (LIRMM, Universite de Montpellier, CNRS, Montpellier, FR)
General chair
Leandro Soares Indrusiak (University of York, UK
Practices and structures for skeletonization and mummification of bodies in southern Italy of late Modern age
Full text linkIn 2005 and 2006 a paleopathology team of the University of Pisa carried out a survey in north-eastern Sicily to investigate the funerary structures of Late Modern Age for the treatment of the bodies, still largely ignored or misinterpreted from the anthropological and paleopathological point of view. The survey allowed to create a first inventory of mummified remains still in situ in the crypts of north-eastern Sicily and to identify two types of surviving architectural structures for the control of bodies decay, preserved in the hypogea rooms under the churches: the ʻsitting colatoioʼ, aimed at favoring the skeletonization, and the ʻhorizontal colatoioʼ, used to obtain natural mummification by dehydration. The sitting colatoio consists in a masonry seat with a hole at the center of the sitting plane, used for desiccation-release of bones through the down flow of the cadaveric fluids (Fig.1). The horizontal colatoio are very small rooms provided with a horizontal grill, made of wood or pottery tubules, on which the corpse was placed. The body, lying on the grill, would slowly lose its fluids through the skin (Fig. 2). The survey, together with another archaeological research in Campania region in southern Italy and an accurate archival research about the ʻterrasanteʼ, the funerary crypts reserved to the members of Confraternities of Naples (fig. 3), allowed us to propose an new interpretation about use and destination of “colatoi”, with a reflection about the concept of death in terms of duration and of secondary burial, first developed by cultural anthropologists Robert Hertz and Arnold Van Gennep. Both these structures controlled the corpse’s decay and transformed the body in stable and durable simulacra of the dead. The ancient concepts of death as duration and the practices of secondary burial, first analyzed by Robert Hertz in the past century, still survive in many areas of southern Italy. According to these ancestral beliefs, death was perceived not as a sudden event, but as a long-lasting process, during which the dead had to go through a transitory phase, passing from one state of existence to another. The present study demonstrates that these archaic concepts, which seemed to have been uprooted by the Catholic Church, tenaciously resisted in the heart of Modern Mediterranean Europe until Contemporary Age.
Bibliography:
FORNACIARI A., GIUFFRA V., PEZZINI F., Processi di tanatometamorfosi: pratiche di scolatura deicorpi e mummificazione nel regno delle Due Sicilie. Arch. Post Med. 2007; 11: 11-49.
FORNACIARI A., GIUFFRA V., PEZZINI F., Secondary burial and mummification practices in the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, Mortality 2010; 15/ 3: 223-249.
FORNACIARI A., Skeleton or mummy: practices and structures for secondary burial in southern Italy in modern and contemporary age. Med. Secoli 2013; 25/1: 205-38.
HERTZ R., Contribution à l’étude sur la représentation collective de la mort. Année Sociologique 1907; 10: 48-137.
PARDO I., L’elaborazione del lutto in un quartiere tradizionale di Napoli. Rassegna italiana di Sociologia 1982, 4: 335-369.
PEZZINI F., Doppie esequie e scolatura dei corpi, Med. Secoli 2006; 18/3: 897-924
Curtain raised on the Medici, Grand Dukes of Florence (16th - 17th centuries): New paleopathological results
No full textWithin the framework of the Medici Project, a paleopathological team of experts from the University of Pisa, the University of Florence and the Superintendence for Florentine Museums,
studied 20 tombs of some of the Medici family members (16th-18th centuries) housed in the socalled Medici Chapels of the Basilica of San Lorenzo in Florence. The project involves disciplines
such as paleopathology, funerary archaeology, physical anthropology, palaeonutrition, parasitology,
histology, histochemistry, immunohistochemistry, electron microscopy, molecular biology, and
identification of ancient pathogens. The most recent biomedical technologies have been employed to obtain as much information as possible about the genetic make-up, eating habits, life styles and
diseases of these important rulers of Renaissance Florence.
Medical accounts and ancient autopsy reports imply that tertian malarial fevers caused the death of
several members of the Medici family, such as Eleonora of Toledo (1522-1562), Cardinal Giovanni (1543-1562), don Garzia (1547-1562) and Grand Duke Francesco I (1531-1587). All members of the Medici family were hunted in the endemic malarial areas of Tuscany, such as the marshy areas surrounding their villas and along the swampy Maremma; therefore, they were highly exposed to the risk of being infected by falciparum malaria. To determine if malaria was the cause of death of those personages, we carried out immunological investigations and, then, compared the biological
results to the historical sources.
Bone samples were examined for the presence of Plasmodium falciparum histidine- rich- protein -2
(PfHRP2) and P. falciparum lactate dehydrogenase (PfLDH) using two different qualitative double–antibody immunoassays. Our findings provide the first modern laboratory evidence of the presence of P. falciparum ancient proteins in the skeletal remains of four members of the Medici family. We confirm the clinical diagnosis of the court physicians, using modern methods.
Furthermore, immunological analyses detecting Leishmania infantum- specific peptides were carried out on the bone samples of the same four members of the Medici family. Positive identification by Western blot SDS-PAGE detected an IgG response anti- L. infantum in the human
remains of Eleonora of Toledo (1522-1562), the wife of Cosimo I (1519-1574), suggesting that she
had suffered from visceral leishmaniasis. This result was additionally supported by molecular ancient DNA (aDNA) analysis, able to identify a specific 120-bp fragment of a conserved region of the minicircle molecule of the parasite ́s kinetoplastid mitochondrial DNA, which showed on direct sequencing a Leishmania specific sequence well compatible with L. Infantum.
This is the first molecular and serological identification of L. infantum infection in a historic
individual from southern Europe.
Furthermore, we provide first evidence for visceral leishmaniasis (VL) and Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex (TB) co-infection in the skeletal remains of Eleonora of Toledo (1522 –
1562), wife of Cosimo I de’ Medici.
Positive identification of Leishmania infantum in bone samples by Western blot SDS-PAGE detected an IgG response anti- L. infantum. PCR yielded successful amplification of a 121-bp
fragment of a conserved region of the minicircle molecule of the parasite ́s kinetoplastid mitochondrial DNA. Unique M. tuberculosis complex sequences (IS 6110 and rpoB) were also
identified in Eleonora’s remains indicating that the historical reports which implied that, at age of 29, she developed pulmonary tuberculosis, were correct.
Although distinct in aetiology and transmission mechanisms, VL and TB share several features.
Many infections remain asymptomatic. Symptoms usually develop after several months or years in those who progress to clinical disease. The very long incubation periods may be related to immune suppression which apparently turns the latent infection into active disease. It has been suggested
that TB represents one of the immunosuppressive conditions that can cause the progression of latent
leishmanial infection to clinical leishmaniasis. Similarly, VL can reactivate a latent mycobacterial
infection.
Eleonora’s true state of health cannot now be evaluated. Long- term infections such as VL and TB
pose many fundamental biological questions which are of great current interest in mammalian immune surveillance.
The application of paleoimmunological techniques on ancient human bone tissue allowed the identification of ancient pathogens, such as malaria by Plasmodium falciparum and Leishmania
infantum. Until now the immunocromatographic tests were applied only on mummified muscle.
These results are of particular interest not only because they can confirm the historical data, as in the case of malaria, but also because they demonstrate that immunological tests can be applied to bone samples, opening new paths of research for the screening of large skeletal series.
References
FORNACIARI G., VITIELLO A., GIUSIANI S., GIUFFRA V., FORNACIARI A., VILLARI N.,
The Medici Project: first anthropological and paleopathological results of exploration of the Medici tombs in Florence. Med Secoli 2007; 19: 521-44.
FORNACIARI G., GIUFFRA V., FERROGLIO E., BIANUCCI R., Malaria was the “killer” of
Francesco I de’ Medici (1531-1587). Am J Med 2010; 123/6: 568-569.
FORNACIARI G., GIUFFRA V., FERROGLIO E., GINO S., BIANUCCI R., Plasmodium
falciparum immunodetection in the Medici Family of Florence (16th century). Trans R Soc Trop
Med Hyg 2010; 104: 583-587
"Risposta a Fornaciari"
No full textorigine dei ghetti, capitale finanziario e altre questioni sollevate da un intervento di Fornaciari[...
Paleoandrology in Italian mummies (15th -19th century)
No full textProstatic hyperplasia, a very common condition today, was well known in the past as cause for bladder distension. At autopsy of natural or artificial mummies, the difficulty in identifying even a
normal-volume prostate is likely to be due to putrefaction processes as well as dramatic reduction in size [1]. We report some ancient cases of prostatic hyperplasia observed recently in natural
mummies from Italy.
The first case regards Pandolfo III Malatesta (1370-1427), a leading figure of the Italian Renaissance. He was a valiant soldier and horseman with a very active life style. The tomb of Pandolfo, containing his naturally mummified body, was explored in Fano (Marche, Central Italy). After careful X-ray and videographic examination, autopsy showed good preservation of the skeletal muscles, cartilage, internal and external organs, including prostate gland and penis. Macroscopic examination revealed a staghorn calculus (calcium urate) of the left kidney and severe enlargement of the prostate, with calcifications detected by X-ray and large nodules protruding in the lumen of an ectatic urethra. Histology showed fibrous bands of connective and muscular tissue surrounding circular and oblong lacunae, with no preservation of epithelial structures. The
macroscopic and histological picture allowed us to diagnose prostatic nodular hyperplasia [2].
The second case, regarding the artificial mummy of Salimbene Capacci (+ 1497), rector of the Medieval hospital of S. Maria della Scala in Siena (Tuscany, central Italy), revealed well preserved pelvic organs at X-ray and CT scan. At autopsy, the cavity appeared filled with vegetable material, but some visceral organs were still in situ, in particular, the remains of the bladder, the prostate and the terminal segment of the intestinal tract. The prostate consisted of a central fibrous structure, surrounded by perineal tissues. Histology revealed dense fibrous tissue containing muscular fibers and roundish cavities of variable size. Histological findings, distended urinary bladder, and age of the subject support the diagnosis of prostatic hyperplasia [3].
The third case (XIX century) concerns the natural mummy of an anonymous 50-60 year-oldman, recovered in an ancient friary near L’Aquila (central Italy), which underwent computed tomography and complete autopsy. Pelvic CT scans showed distended urinary bladder and a ring of fibrous dense tissue at the site of the prostate. At autopsy the bladder measured 7 x 6 x 5 cm and the prostate was 4 x 5 x 3 cm; the prostatic urethra had a 2-cm diameter. Histology revealed dense fibrous tissue containing muscular fibers and roundish cavities of variable size, filled with eosinophilic, PAS-positive material. Concretions were also present in some of these spaces. Strong immunohistochemical reactivity for PSA was observed in this material. The existence of glandular structures containing PAS-positive material, immunoreactive for PSA, confirmed the prostatic
nature of the specimen, already suspected after CT scan and gross examination. The presence of the prostate, its histological appearances, the preserved and distended urinary bladder and the age of the subject support the diagnosis of prostatic hyperplasia [4].
To our knowledge, so far neither benign nor malignant forms of prostatic enlargements have appeared in paleopathology literature [1]. Therefore, the Italian cases of the Renaissance and Modern ages represent the only known reports of prostatic hyperplasia in mummies and clearly demonstrate that paleoandrological studies using diverse and modern technologies are possible. The good preservation of the external and internal genitalia of these three individuals may be related to the supine position of the bodies after death, which allowed rapid dehydration of these structures. This type of approach, currently limited to the prostate but easily extensible to other organs on a larger number of mummies, could solve some important medical problems, as for example the origin and diffusion of some sexually transmitted diseases and genital tumors, whose natural history studied by the andrologists is still unclear.
References
1. Aufderheide AC, Rodriguez-Martin C: The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Human Paleopathology. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1998, p. 287.
2. Ciranni R, Giusti L, Fornaciari G: Prostatic hyperplasia in the mummy of an Italian Renaissance prince. Prostate 45:320-322, 2000.
3. Giuffra V, Naccarato AG, Caramella D, Fornaciari A, Marvelli S, Fornaciari G: The rector of the hospital and his wife: two artificial mummies of the late 15th century from Siena (central Italy). Proceedings of VI World Congress on Mummy Studies 205bis, 2007.
4. Ventura L, Leocata P, Ventura T, Fornaciari G: Studio paleopatologico delle mummie naturali di Goriano Valli (L'Aquila). Risultati preliminari. De Re Medica 12:33-35, 2000
Results of the first explorations of the Medicean tombs in Michelangelo’s church of San Lorenzo (Florence, 16th-18th centuries)
No full textStarting from the 14th century the Medici, one of the most powerful and influential families of the Renaissance, achieved their fortune through banking and commerce. They gained prominent position in the political life of the city of Florence, which became the cultural centre of Europe. Lovers of the arts, the Medici were patrons of Michelangelo, Leonardo, Botticelli, Galileo and Benvenuto Cellini. Almost all the most prominent members of the Medici were buried under the vaults of the Basilica of San Lorenzo in Florence (Sommi Picenardi 1888).
In 2002, the Superintendent of Florence Antonio Paolucci authorized examination of 49 of the Medici corpses buried in the church. This was a unique opportunity to study the health conditions, lifestyles and causes of death of some of the most important members of this family.
There are two main branches in the genealogical tree of the Medici family, which ruled Florence and Tuscany in the golden years of Renaissance: that of Lorenzo the Magnificent (1446-1492), and that of the Grand Dukes of Tuscany, from John of the Black Bands (1498-1526) to the last Grand Duke Gian Gastone (1671-1737). The “Medici Project” intends to study the latter, which is the less investigated series. Aim of the “Medici Project”, coordinated by the University of Pisa, the University of Florence and the Superintendence of the Florentine Museums, is to perform an archaeological and paleopathological research on 49 of the funerary depositions in the Chapels. The research will include funerary archaeology, anthropology, paleonutrition, parasitology, pathology, histology, histochemistry, immunohistochemistry, electron microscopy, molecular biology and identification of ancient pathogens. The most recent biomedical techniques will be used to obtain as much information as possible about these important figures (Fornaciari et al. 2005, 2006).
In order to study the bodies, we set up a temporary laboratory in the “Lorena Chapel”, the funerary crypt of the Grand Dukes of the Lorena Dynasty, which ruled over Florence and Tuscany after the Medici, until 1859.
Following the exploration of some burials during the second World War, we first decided to examine the tomb of Gian Gastone, the last Grand Duke of the Medici (1671-1737). A dark marble disk with no epigraph, considered a simple floor decoration was removed, displaying a secret opening, with a small stone stair leading to a totally unknown hidden crypt. The small funerary crypt revealed a sort of raised floor level surrounding a room which hosted a large sarcophagus, and many small wooden coffins, completely collapsed on the floor, and covered by a layer of dry mould, as a result of the 1966 flooding. Dampness (90%) and temperature (30 °C) were so high that specific equipment was necessary to control climatization at the entrance of the crypt. This climatization eliminated the danger of damage to the coffins and bodies, by the introduction of external air during the works of archaeologists.
A number of funerary depositions were unexpectedly well preserved as for example the burial of a 5-year-old child with dress, shoes and silver crown. The dress was formed by a red silk jacket with thin collar and buttons, in a flowery pattern with silver gallons, and large plus-fours of the same tissue.
The external wooden sarcophagus of the Grand Duke Gian Gastone with a badly damaged lid collapsed in its interior contained another sarcophagus in lead, with a large Christian cross and six iron handles on the lid. The funerary deposition of the Grand Duke was intact: he was still wearing his funerary crown in gold-covered copper and was covered by the silk Great Cape (Cappa Magna) of Grand Master of Knights of the Order of St Stephen. Two large golden medallions, about 110 grams each, appeared at the sides of the Grand Duke’s head as well as a silver crucifix on the chest and a large lead tube, probably containing a parchment with some writings celebrating the Grand Duke.
The study of the skeleton of Cosimo I (1519-1574), 1st Grand Duke of Tuscany, revealed that he was a vigorous man, with anthropological age of 50-60 years, 1.78 m tall, medium-sized skull and a narrow nose (Krogman and Isçan 1986). The muscular insertions were those of a very strong man (Robb 1994). The horseman markers were all present, showing the ergonomic pattern of a perfect knight (Belcastro et al. 2001). During adolescence, reveals that, during adolescence, Cosimo must have carried very heavy loads on his thorax, probably the armours of that period, as attested by the presence of some Schmorl vertebral hernias (Weiss 2005).
The clinical history of Cosimo I is evidenced by the very rich archive data, including the reports of the ambassadors and court physicians. Apart from some well recovered diseases, such as smallpox, malarial fevers, gravel and bronchitis, we have a picture of severe early arteriosclerosis, with paralysis of the left arm, right hemi paresis, dyslalia, psychical instability, urinary incontinence, aphasia and agraphia. There is an acute articular disease, a sort of arthritis, named “gout” of the right knee, or generic “gout”. Finally, death was caused by catarrhal fever, probably bronchopneumonia, at the age of 55 (Pieraccini 1986).
The paleopathological study of the skeleton reveals that Cosimo I suffered from diffused vertebral and extra-vertebral arthritis, probably caused by his intense physical activity. Ossification and fusion of the anterior vertebral ligament and extensive ossification of the articular ligaments demonstrate that he was not affected by gout, as referred by the court physicians, but by DISH (Diffuse Idiopathic Skeletal Hyperostosis), an articular disease linked with diabetes and obesity. Ossification and fusion of the anterior right vertebral ligament, at the level of the 6th, 7th an 8th thoracic vertebral bodies, is typical of DISH (Ortner 2003).
At autopsy and embalming of the body (Fornaciari and Marinozzi 2005), the court surgeon tried to cut the skull at the level of the right parietal bone; only at the third attempt was he able to obtain a coarse horizontal cut. Finally, the skull was levered with a large chisel, which damaged the skullcap in three points.
The study of the skeleton of Eleonora di Toledo (1522-1562), wife of Cosimo I, reveals that she was a woman with an anthropological age of 36-46 years, 1.58 m tall, with medium low skull, high orbits and narrow face and nose (Krogman and Isçan 1986). The muscular insertions show a fairly good muscular activity (Robb 1994). The clinical history of Eleonora is characterized by many deliveries: she gave birth to 11 babies between the age of 18 and 32. Probably for this reason, from the age of 29, she developed pulmonary tuberculosis which, together with an outbreak of pernicious malaria, killed her at the age of 40 (Pieraccini 1986). A famous portrait by Bronzino shows a very thin and ailing Eleonora, affected by phthisis.
The paleopathological study of the skeleton reveals that Eleonora suffered from a light form of rickets during childhood, as appears from the curvature of her tibiae (Ortner 2003). She presents pelvic skeletal markers of her numerous deliveries (Krogman and Isçan 1986). She also presented slight vertebral and extra-vertebral arthritis. Finally, Eleonora suffered from severe dental disease, with destroying caries, probably due to loss of calcium caused by her frequent pregnancies.
The study of the skeleton of Francesco I (1541-1587), 2nd Grand Duke of Tuscany, reveals that Francesco I was a vigorous man, with an anthropological age of 40-50 years, a stature of 1.74 m, a medium-sized skull and a narrow nose (Krogman and Isçan 1986). The muscular insertions are those of a very strong man and the typical horsemen markers are almost all present (Belcastro et al. 2001). This new data contrasts with the traditional knowledge of an intellectual, sedentary prince, all dedicated to his alchemic studies (Berti 2002). He was affected by acute bronchitis and bronchopneumonia at the ages of 20 and 38 respectively and after 35 years of age he grew rather fat, suffered from gravel with colics (at 44-45 years) and died of pernicious malaria at the age of 46 (Pieraccini 1986). His great interest towards alchemy led him to fuse rock crystal, producing the so-called “Medicean porcelain” (Liverani 1936), a sort of luxury pottery very similar to china in his laboratory of Pitti palace. Therefore, he was certainly exposed to chronic poisonings and the toxicological study of his bone tissue will be of great interest to establish the exact grade of exposure to the different substances. The rumors according to which he with his second wife the Grand Duchess Bianca Capello were poisoned together, by his brother Ferdinando - who succeeded him on the throne – with an arsenical compound, are certainly false (Pieraccini 1986). Owing to the frequent use that contemporary surgeons made of arsenical mixtures in embalming and visceral processing (Fornaciari and Marinozzi 2005), toxicology is unlikely to be able to verify this legend. The paleopathological study of the skeleton demonstrates that Francesco I suffered from moderate vertebral and extra-vertebral arthritis (Ortner 2003) and reveals a well recovered fracture of the coccyx, probably the result of a fall. Finally, the section of the body of the sternum, clearly made to perform autopsy and embalming, is worth mentioning (Fornaciari and Marinozzi 2005).
The Archduchess Joan of Austria, wife of Francesco I, was a very religious woman, as confirmed by the finding of her well preserved rosary, made in simple wood. Joan was an unattractive woman, as appears from numerous portraits and some contemporary reports even describe her as “humpbacked”. She had six very difficult deliveries and died during childbirth, following uterus rupture, at 30 years of age. Study of the skeleton reveals that Joan was a woman with anthropological age around 30 years, a height of 1.57 m, medium-low skull and orbits and narrow face and nose (Krogman and Isçan 1986). Her weak muscular insertions witness scarce physical activity. There is section of the body of the sternum, clearly made to perform autopsy and embalming of the copse are confirmed by a section on the sternum of the body. The paleopathological study of the skeleton witnesses a large number of diseases, including: Prognathism, with a marked anterior projection of the mandible, resulting in the famous Hapsburg jaw; marked hyperostosis: ca 1 cm congenital thickening of the cranial vault (Ortener 2003); amelogenesis imperfecta: congenital malformation of the dental crowns (Aufderheide and Rodríguez-Martin 1998); severe scoliosis of the lumbar column with impressive deformity of the pelvis, responsible for her difficult deliveries and death by uterus rupture; incomplete congenital hip dislocation (Ortner 2003); clear signs of her numerous deliveries, such as enormous retro-pubic foveae, deep pre-auricular sulci (Krogman and Isçan 1986).
A preliminary study of the skeletal remains of 9 immature individuals aged between 0 and 5 years allowed us to diagnose 6 cases of rickets, 5 cases of porothic hyperostosis and one case of hydrocephaly (Ortner 2003). It is very likely that rickets was caused by the scarce exposure to light of the children in the environment of the Renaissance and Modern age courts, while porothic hyperostosis was probably determined by prolonged nursing of the babies.
These are the results of the explorations of the the first 15 out of 49 tombs, and include those of 9 children. The laboratory studies are still in progress.
Another 39 burials, the majority of which are intact, will be explored in the next two years. The study of the Medicean funerary depositions and bodies will certainly expand our knowledge of the diseases, style of life, and tastes of the members of that dynasty, so important for the Italian Renaissance.
References:
Aufderheide AC, Rodríguez-Martin C. 1998. The Cambridge encyclopedia of human paleopathology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Belcastro MG, Facchini F, Neri R, Mariotti V. 2001. Skeletal markers of activity in the early Middle Ages necropolis of Vicenne-Campochiaro (Molise, Italy). Journal of Paleopathology 13: 9-20.
Berti L. 2002. Il Principe dello Studiolo. Francesco I dei Medici e la fine del Rinascimento fiorentino. Pistoia: Maschietto Editore.
Fornaciari G, Brier B, Fornaciari A. 2005. Secrets of the Medici. Archaeology 58/4: 36-41.
Fornaciari G, Marinozzi S. 2005. Le mummie e l'arte medica: per una storia dell’imbalsamazione artificiale dei corpi umani nell’evo Moderno. Medicina nei Secoli, Supplemento1.
Fornaciari G, Vitiello A, Giusiani S, Giuffra V, Fornaciari A. 2006. The “Medici Project”: First Results of the Explorations of the Medici Tombs in Florence (15th-18th centuries). Paleopathology Newsletter 133: 15-22.
Krogman WM, Iscan MY. 1986. The human skeleton in forensic medicine. Springfield: Charles C Thomas,.
Liverani G. 1936. Catalogo delle porcellane dei Medici. Roma: Istituto Poligrafico dello Stato-Libreria dello Stato,.
Ortner DJ. 2003. Identification of pathological conditions in human skeletal remains. San Diego: Academic Press,.
Pieraccini G. 1986. La stirpe dei Medici di Cafaggiolo, vol. 2. Firenze: Nardini Editore.
Robb JE. 1994. Skeletal signs of activity in the Italian Metal Ages, methodological and interpretative notes. Human Evolution 9: 215-229.
Sommi Picenardi G. 1888. Esumazione e ricognizione delle ceneri dei Principi Medicei fatta nell'anno 1857, Processo verbale e note, Archivio storico italiano serie V 1-2: 5-53.
Weiss E. 2005. Schmorl’s nodes: a preliminary investigation. Paleopathology Newsletter 132: 6-10
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