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Cashew apple in Tanzania: status of utilization, challenges, and opportunities for sustainable development
No full textThis research article was published by F1000 Research, 2022Home Browse Cashew apple in Tanzania: status of utilization, challenges, and opportunities...
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POLICY BRIEF
Cashew apple in Tanzania: status of utilization, challenges, and opportunities for sustainable development [version 1; peer review: awaiting peer review]
Noel Dimoso https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5536-3437, Neema Kassim, Edna Makule https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3077-8932
Author details
This article is included in the Agriculture, Food and Nutrition gateway.
Abstract
Cashew apples, although widely available and rich in nutrients are still underutilized after harvest in Tanzania. Approximately 2,327,000 metric tonnes of cashew apples are lost each year. Their counterpart, the cashew nut is highly appreciated and successfully contributes to the national economy. The huge underutilization of cashew apples is a challenge that requires urgent attention in order to achieve both national and global Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) by 2030. Improvement of the cashew apple sector could have a positive impact on global SDGs 1, 2, and 3 targets of no poverty, zero hunger, and good health and well-being respectively. At national level, this sector could contribute to the goals of the Tanzania Development Vision (TDV) 2025, namely: high quality livelihood, particularly food self-sufficiency and food security; and a strong and competitive economy, particularly a diversified and semi-industrialized economy with a substantial industrial sector comparable to typical middle-income countries. In addition, the country’s Third Five Year Development Plan III (FYDP III) 2021/22 – 2025/26 has established key strategic interventions, notably those related to competitive industrialization, energy, and food and nutrition security to ultimately achieve the goals of the TDV 2025. To be effective, however, these strategic interventions require continued strong central and local government support and active involvement of stakeholders to ensure program effectiveness yielded towards efficient utilization of widely available natural resources such as cashew apples which has cross-cutting benefits in food, agriculture, health, energy, and economic perspectives. Therefore, the work provides evidence on the utilization status, challenges, and opportunities for sustainable development in Tanzania
Ethnopharmacological survey and phytochemical investigation of Maasai traditional medicinal plants from north-eastern Tanzania
No full textIn this study, an ethnopharmacological survey was conducted in Arusha and Manyara regions of north-eastern Tanzania. The objective of the survey was a detailed investigation and documentation of commonly used Maasai medicinal plants in the area. A total of 65 consented traditional medicinal practitioners (TMPs) were interviewed. Information was collected by using a semi structured questionnaire interview. Four commonly used medicinal plants were investigated, namely Myrica salicifolia (Myricaceae), Pappea capensis (Sapindaceae), Flacourtia indica (Salicaceae) and Vangueria apiculata (Rubiaceae). Documentation on plant parts used, drug preparation, traditional medicinal uses, drug administration and overdose management was achieved. A number of diseases were reported to be cured by the four plants. The most mentioned diseases to be treated by M. salicifolia were gonorrhoea (81%) and running nose (73%). P. capensis was mainly used for the enhancement of libido (89%) and to treat blood loss (72%). F. indica was applied to treat fever (92%), malaria (90%) and jaundice (87%). The most mentioned applications for V. apiculata were eye infection (73%) and diarrhoea (66%). Moreover, all four plants were reported to cure further disorders and diseases like joints pain, back pain, gouts, diarrhoea, stomach upset, etc. Furthermore, the survey revealed that barks and roots were the most utilized plant parts. Drug administration was observed not to be uniform, in terms of concentration, time and dose.
Phytochemical investigation of a crude methanolic extract of M. salicifolia bark was performed following its documented ethnopharmacological survey data. The phytochemical investigation resulted in isolation of 31 compounds belonging to different compounds classes: 8 proanthocyanidins, 1 ellagitannin, 17 cyclic diarylheptanoids, 3 methylated ellagic acid glycosides and 2 further compounds. 10 of the isolated compounds from M. salicifolia were identified to be completely new, not described in the literature yet. Additionally, the existence of a new class of compounds to the genus Myrica was also discovered, the so called methylated ellagic acid glycosides (MEAG). It was further noticed that the methanolic extract of M. salicifolia contained mainly proanthocyanidins and cyclic diarylheptanoids in large quantity compared to other compound classes. Moreover, taxonomic relationship of M. salifolia to other reported Myrica species was demonstrated by the compounds isolated from M. salicifolia. Some of the compounds were also reported from other Myrica species, for example myricanol (11) and myricanone (12). These two compounds are found in almost every Myrica species which has been phytochemically investigated.
Finally, the objective of the work was accomplished to a great extent, however further investigations are recommended for the future.
Due to time constraints, the isolated compounds were not investigated for their pharmacological activities. However, existing literature data on in-vitro and/or in-vivo biological activity of the mentioned classes of compounds isolated from other plants species and also from Myrica provide a preliminary indication of a healing potential of this plant.
To provide scientific confirmation of the healing potential of M. salicifolia bark, prospective in-vitro and/or in-vivo pharmacological investigations of the isolated compounds should be conducted by using assays which adhere to the diseases claimed to be treated by M. salicifolia bark.
Also further phytochemical investigation of M. salicifolia bark should be conducted to achieve the complete phytochemical composition of the bark. The future phytochemical investigation should focus on the non-polar extracts (dichloromethane and ethylacetate extracts) which could not be investigated in this research work. But also the polar extracts (methanol 100% and methanol 50% extract) should be further processed. In the methanolic fraction are still a great number of compounds not isolated as they were found in very small amounts. In addition, there are further compounds that would have a good yield, but due to time limitations they were not isolated yet.
Moreover, phytochemical and pharmacological investigations of the remaining three medicinal plants F. indica, P. capensis and V. apiculata should be performed in the same way as for M. salicifolia.
Lastly, dissemination of the results is essential and should be done to increase awareness of the four medicinal plants. This should be done in Arusha and Manyara regions, where the ethnopharmacological survey was conducted, but also in all other parts of Tanzania. Moreover, results dissemination should be done in different languages in such a way that every Tanzanian would understand and be in position to utilize the knowledge whenever in need
Climate-smart aquaculture in Tanzania: Assessment of transitional and heavy metals concentrations in a commonly used local feed ingredient for Tilapia farming
No full textA study conducted from January through May 2023 to assess the concentrations of heavy and transitional metals in a commonly used local feed ingredient in a farmed Nile tilapia diet (Oreochromis niloticus) in Tanzania. Eleven fish feed ingredients such as, sunflower seed cake (SFSC), wheat pollard (WP), maize bran (MB), fish meal (FM), freshwater shrimp (FWS), cattle blood meal (CBM), bone meal (BM), soya bean meal (SBM), and rice bran (RB), brewers’ spent grain (BSG) and Taro leaves (Colocasia esculenta; TL) were randomly sampled from feed manufacturers, animal feeds’ centers and other animal feeds suppliers in Arusha and Dar es Salaam region for inclusion in this study. Heavy metals and transition metals in feed ingredients were analyzed using the Energy-Dispersive X-rays Fluorescence (XRF) (Xla Pro-Spectrometer/German) at the Tanzania Atomic Energy Commission (TAEC) laboratory. The results showed that most of the fish-feed ingredients used in this study comply with the maximum allowable concentrations in Nile tilapia diets-according to the Tanzania bureau of standards and the European commission. However, the results showed that, the concentrations of reported metals (As, Pb, Cd, Hg, Co, Cu, Mo, Mn, Ni, Ag, V, Cr, Fe and Zn) varied significantly (p < 0.05 ) in most of the analyzed local feed ingredients collected in Tanzania. The study has paved the way for other researchers to further assess more feed ingredients used not only on heavy metals but other potential contaminants in feeds to ensure sustainable fish farming in Tanzania
Physical Methods for Reduction of Aflatoxins Exposure in Groundnuts in Some Low-Income Countries: A Review
No full textThis research article was published in the Current Research in Nutrition and Food Science Vol. 11, No. (2), 2023Aflatoxin (AF) is a powerful carcinogen primarily produced by some strains
of the fungus Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus, which frequently
infest nuts and cereal crops. Groundnuts are among the most widely studied
substrates of Aspergillus spp., growth and AF contamination. Aflatoxin
contamination is a significant public health concern since chronic exposure is
linked to causing carcinogenicity, teratogenicity, hepatotoxicity, estrogenicity,
neurotoxicity, childhood growth impairment, and immunotoxicity in humans
and animals. Acute exposure to AF contamination is associated with fatal
aflatoxicosis due to nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, and convulsions.
Good agricultural practices, control of plant diseases, and favourable
storage conditions can limit AF contamination yet do not guarantee complete
elimination. Looking for an effective technique to reduce AF to an acceptable
regulatory limit has been a great subject among researchers. Physical
methods like manual visual sorting, screening, density, roasting, dehulling,
winnowing, and decortication can reduce AF contamination while maintaining
the quality of the kernel and render the kernels harmless to humans and
animals compared to AF degradation by chemicals. Therefore, the present
review article found that physical removal/visual sorting efficiently lowered
the mean AF content commonly used in low-income countries. We briefly
enumerated the effectiveness of various common physical methods in
reducing post-harvest AF contamination in groundnuts, particularly their
percentage AF reduction and outsort/loss, sufficient AF reduction evidence,
feasibility, and scalability. We also highlighted the merits and demerits
of these methods and essential information that could be helpful for further
investigatio
Heavy metals and lambda-cyhalothrin levels in prawns, water and sediments along the Indian Coastline of Tanzania
No full textThis research article published by International Journal of Biosciences, Vol. 14, No. 4, 2019Heavy metals and pesticide residues in prawns, water and sediments, and sources of contamination were
determined. Prawns, sediments and water samples were collected from agricultural farms and estuarine, along
the coastline of Indian Ocean in Kisiju, Bagamoyo and Kilwa zones in Tanzania. The concentration of heavy
metals; zinc (Zn), lead (Pb) and cadmium (Cd) was determined using Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometry
(AAS), and Direct Mercury Analyzer (DMA) for mercury (Hg). Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrophotometry
(GC-MS) was also used to analyze for pesticide residues. Data on demographic characterization and sources of
aquatic pollution were obtained through structured questionnaires. Results indicated that, fertilizers (60.7%),
pesticides (59.8%) and herbicides (60.7%) were the main sources of aquatic pollution. Cyberdip and Utupa were
the chemicals used in prawns. The distribution of heavy metals mean concentrations in prawns and sediments
were found to be in order Zn>Pb>Cd>Hg, and Pb>Zn>Cd>Hg in water. Lambda-cyhalothrin was the only
pesticide residue detected in prawns and sediments and not detected in water. Significant high levels of lambdacyhalothrin in sediments were detected from Kisiju (16.49±2.36mg/kg) and Kilwa (12.21±3.24mg/kg)
respectively. On the other hand, lowest Lambda-cyhalothrin level in prawns was detected in Kisiju
(2.26±0.51mg/kg) and Kilwa (0.28±0.40mg/kg). Presence of heavy metals and Lambda-cyhalothrin indicate
marine pollution. Marine pollutants may impair quality and safety of prawns and by-products to the public
health. Monitoring of agricultural and other anthropogenic activities in the area especially in the Rufiji delta and
around the mangroves where prawns spawn is inevitable
Precooling and Cold Storage Methods for Fruits and Vegetables in Sub-Saharan Africa—A Review
No full textData Availability Statement: Not applicable.Copyright: © 2022 by the authors. Fruits and vegetables, known for their large nutrient potential, are more susceptible to high postharvest loss than other crops. Factors such as perishability, poor post-production handling and storage and processing infrastructures, increase the magnitude of food losses. The postharvest loss of fruits and vegetables in Sub-Saharan Africa ranges from 30% to 50%. One key strategy to overcome such losses is through cold chain integration in value chains. However, most developing countries currently lack the basic infrastructure and management skills needed to support the development of integrated cold chains, particularly in rural areas, where up to 60% of overall food losses occur on the farm and in ‘first-mile’ distribution. Storage of highly perishable produce in a controlled environment with respect to temperature and relative humidity leads to quality and quantity preservation. This contributes to increases in food and nutrition security, household incomes and environmental protection. This review addresses the need for adopting and strengthening measures for the precooling and cold storage of fruits and vegetables to improve their value chains. A range of precooling and cold storage methods, their suitability, energy demands and the constraints on storage and distribution are discussed and recommendations are made on how to improve their accessibility for small-scale farmers in rural communities.United Kingdom Research and Innovation (UKRI), grant number EP/T015535/1
Effectiveness of complementary sorting methods in reducing aflatoxin contamination in groundnuts
No full textThis research article was published by the World Mycotoxin Journal 16, 2023Aflatoxin contamination of staple foods remains a public health concern in many tropical and sub-tropical
countries. In sub-Saharan Africa, groundnuts are a significant source of aflatoxin (AF) in vulnerable populations
such as infants and young children. However, there are limited scalable and affordable technological interventions
to reduce the risk of aflatoxin ingestion in low and middle-income contexts. This study compared the effectiveness
of complementary sorting methods in reducing AF contamination, time taken, and percentage loss of groundnuts.
The study also evaluated bulk density and kernel weight as proxies for AF. Groundnuts were sampled from 19 bags
at a medium-scale enterprise in Tanzania (Halisi) that processes cereal-based blended flours for complementary
feeding. The samples were subjected to six sorting methods: (1) size (S) sorting, which yielded large and small
fractions (n = 38); (2) density (D) sorting, which yielded heavy and light fractions (n = 38), (3) visual (V) sorting,
(4) the combination of size and visual (SV), (5) the combination of density and visual (DV), and (6) the combination
of size, density, and visual (SDV) which yielded grades 1, 2, 3, and 4 (n = 76). Samples of unsorted groundnuts and
grades from all six sorting regimes (n = 418) were analysed for total aflatoxin by enzyme-linked immunosorbent
assay. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) at a 5% significance level was used to compare AF reduction efficiency.
Aflatoxin levels were reduced by 99% for the highest grade (G1) by the SDV sorting method. The SDV sorting method
was the most effective in reducing AF contamination by removing 14% outsort (Grade 4) from 1 kg groundnut within
22 min. Bulk density and 100 kernels weight were inversely associated with AF, indicating their value as AF proxies.
Scaling up such low-cost sorting methods can significantly reduce AF along the value chain and improve food safet
Underutilized Cashew Apple Fruit: Its Utility and Development as a Source of Nutrients and Value Added Products in Tanzania
No full textThis research article was published in the Current Research in Nutrition and Food Science Vol. 11, No. (1), 2023The tropical cashew tree, Anacardium occidentale L., has remarkable
potential. The tree produces the pseudo-fruit known as the cashew
apple and nuts. The apple is sweet, juicy, and loaded with dietary
fiber, phytonutrients, minerals, and vitamin C. Despite having high
nutritional content, the cashew apple is neglected in low-technological
nations like Tanzania, primarily because of negligence over the well-
known nut, its perishability, and its astringent taste. Contrarily, cashew
apples are processed into various goods in high-income nations where
food processing and technology improvements have been realized.
Cashew apple products include juice, syrup, wine, alcohol, dietary fiber
extracts, and animal feed. However, inadequate technologies and skills
for postharvest handling and value addition have led to a considerable loss
of cashew apples, contributing to pronounced food and nutrition insecurity.
This review documents the production of cashew apples in Tanzania
and reveals the fruit's critical underutilization and potential nutrition and
economic opportunities. This documentation may call for interventions to
create awareness of the importance of cashew apples in social-economic,
food, nutrition and health, empower locals, and invite new processing
technologies to diversify and extend shelf-life. The ultimate goal is to
promote the utilization of this abandoned nutritious fruit. Such approaches
may reduce postharvest losses and impact food and nutrition security and
the social-economic empowerment of smallholder farmers
Investigating the Optimal Treatment to Improve Cashew Apple Juice Quality and Shelf Life
No full textThis research article was published in the Journal of Food Processing and Preservation, Volume 2023, Article ID 4155761, 12 pages, 2023An investigation was carried out to extend the shelf life of cashew apple juice (CAJ) by up to 90 days from its natural shelf life. CAJ was obtained by pressing apples. Then, extracted juice was clarified, pasteurized, and added with preservatives, citric acid (0.01%), and sodium benzoate (0.01%). The juice was analyzed for physicochemical qualities, sugars, microbial (total bacteria, yeast, and mould) and sensory evaluation tests for appearance (yellow and brown color), aroma, and taste (astringent, bitter, and sweet). CAJ was stored at refrigeration (4°C) and ambient temperature (22.6-32.5°C) for 90 days. Sensory and shelf life analyses were conducted at 0, 15, 30, 45, 60, 75, and 90 days during storage. The results showed that cashew apple juice had strong vitamin C content (256.5 mg/100 mL). At ambient storage, there was high decrease of vitamin C (6.2-59.8%) and low decrease at refrigeration storage (1.6-10.5%). pH was found to decrease (4.4-3.15) and TSS (11–10.6°Bx), while titratable acidity (0.4–0.59%) increases with time at refrigerating storage. Also, at ambient storage, CAJ showed the similar trend, having decrease in pH (4.4-3.06) and TSS (11-10.3°Bx), while titratable acidity increased (0.4-0.61%). Moreover, sugar content for juice had minimum and maximum decrease at refrigeration and ambient temperatures, respectively. Storage at ambient temperature resulted in growth of microbes which was observed after 15 days for juices without preservatives and 75 days for juices with preservatives, with no E. coli growth. Juice on refrigeration had higher intensity of yellow color (7.50) and sweetness (5.58) while low intensity for astringency (1.58) (). Sensory evaluation of the beverage was found to be satisfactory. Thus, shelf life of cashew apple juice was extended to 90 days satisfactorily, ensuring consumption-safe parameters and satisfactory sensory qualities
Effect of clarification on physicochemical properties and nutrient retention of pressed and blended cashew apple juice
No full textThis research article was published by Wiley Online Library, 2023The cashew apple is a nutritious pseudofruit of the cashew tree, after the nut. It is highly perishable and has an astringent taste, which hinder its utilization in the food sector. This study was designed to optimize clarification of cashew apple juice (CAJ) using gelatine, and assess the effect of clarification on physicochemical properties (titratable acidity, total soluble solids, and pH), nutrient retention, and sensory quality of pressed and blended CAJ. CAJ was treated with gelatine concentrations (0, 0.025, 0.05, 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, and 0.4 g/L) at room temperature (24–26°C) for 1, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, and 12 h. Both clarified and unclarified juice were analyzed for tannin, total phenol, β-carotene, vitamin C, sugar, minerals, antioxidant activity, and physicochemical and sensory qualities. The results showed that tannin in pressed CAJ was optimally reduced from 217.6 mg/100 ml TAE to 24.6 mg/100 ml TAE, and from 258.0 mg/100 ml TAE to 55.0 mg/100 ml TAE in blended CAJ, using 0.2 g of gelatine in a liter of juice, for 2 h at room temperature. Both CAJ with and without clarification showed no significant difference in pH, total soluble solids, and titratable acidity (p < .05). However, blended CAJ had higher contents of total phenol, tannin, β-carotene, vitamin C, sugar, minerals, and antioxidant activity (p < .05). The use of a low concentration (0.2 g/L) of gelatine in a liter of either blended or pressed CAJ yielded sweet and less astringent CAJ with high-intensity yellow color. The technologies performed well at room temperature and therefore provide the basis for potential business investment
