1,720,985 research outputs found
Optimization of the mass ratio and melting temperature of PCMs integrated in Salt Gradient Solar Ponds
Full text linkPhase Change Materials (PCMs) are promising materials to increase the storage capacity of solar energy-based systems, such as Salt Gradient Solar Ponds (SGSPs), as they are characterized by a large latent heat during the solid-liquid phase change. This paper introduces an optimization study for PCM integration in SGSP, in terms of PCM mass ratio (14 %, 19 %, 28 % and 47 %) in the lower convective zone and PCM melting temperature (35 °C, 44 °C and 50 °C). Numerically, a 2D model is developed, consisting in the continuity equation as well on momentum, thermal energy and diffusion equations. In order to validate this numerical model, an experimental campaign of a parallelepiped SGSP with PCM capsules in the bottom is constructed. The latter is tested for two PCMs (RT35HC and RT44HC) and under different climatic conditions of March and June. Numerical and experimental have been compared in which the maximum average relative error does not exceed 4.62 %, which ensures a positive validation. The optimization returns that the final liquid fraction of PCM decreases both increasing the mass ratio and melting temperature. Higher mass ratios reduce the final temperature of the PCM (49.5 °C with 14 % and 42 °C with 47 % for RT35HC), and also with higher melting temperatures reduce the thermal energy stored, since the pond tends to work only as a sensible energy storage system
Experimental investigation and optical visualization of a salt gradient solar pond integrated with PCM
No full textThe thermal performance of a solar pond is affected by the amount of heat lost to the ground through the lower convective zone (LCZ) in which the heat is stored. Studies are focused on decreasing the heat losses, to maximize the energy stored and guarantee the stability of the thermohaline system over time. Phase change materials (PCMs) can help to achieve all these goals, since they work as thermal energy storage (TES), exploiting the latent heat absorbed during the solid-liquid phase change. This paper presents an experimental application of PCMs in the LCZ of a small solar pond. The paraffin wax was enclosed in aluminium cylinders which have been arranged on the bottom. The temperature of the solution in deep is monitored both with and without the PCM. The stability of the pond is analyzed through a laser shadowgraph technique, to visualize the effect of the thermal convection on the interfaces. Results show that the LCZ of the solar pond with PCM is around 3 °C colder than the reference case after a 6-h heating period. The shadowgraph analysis proves that the thermal convection in the reference case is stronger and damage the interface until break. The monitoring of the solar pond with PCM shows an improved stability
Technical analysis and economic evaluation of a complex shore-to-ship power supply system
No full textIn port areas, with the progressive increase in maritime traffic, the problem of pollution is crucial especially when the port is near to an urban area. The cold ironing allows a reduction of pollutants satisfying the power demand of ships while they are at berth, replacing on board diesel engines. In this paper, the methodology of analysis of the electrical loads required by ships concerns the typical week of each month over a one year period. The power is provided by a cogeneration plant powered by natural gas. It is flanked by a Compressed Air Energy Storage system since the energy demand is linked to the presence of ships in port and so very variable over time. The heat waste is recovered in a heating district network for overall optimization. At last, the economical aspect has been evaluated to prove the feasibility of the whole system. The results, for the case of the port of Ancona, show that a 1.5 MW and 2 MW cogenerator covers the 83.05% and 92.5% of the electrical need of ships respectively, and the 61% and 74% of the thermal need of buildings over the period analysed. The coverage of the CAES system is not influenced by the rated power
Local energy production scenarios for emissions reduction of pollutants in small-medium ports
No full textEnvironmental impact produced by ships in ports is a relevant problem, especially when they are located close to urban areas. This paper, taking Ancona (Italy) as a case study, analyzes the CO2 (and other chemical species) emissions produced by the auxiliary engines of ferry ships at berth. Three different configurations have been investigated, one grid-connected and two with local power plants. Cogenerative and photovoltaic scenarios have been considered varying the power size and the presence of a storage system. A computational model, based on maritime traffic and meteorological data over a one-year period, returns the percentages of the energy covered by the plant, the grid and the storage system. Environmental analysis shows that the grid-connected cold ironing scenario reduces the CO2 emissions by 34.5% compared to on-board diesel generators emissions. Cogeneration systems reduce CO2 emissions by 60–62%, while photovoltaic ones around 39%. All scenarios prove to be economically feasible
Optimal sizing of a photovoltaic/energy storage/cold ironing system: Life Cycle cost approach and environmental analysis
Full text linkTraditional cold ironing allows ships to shut down their auxiliary engines, during the berthing time, and to be powered by an on-shore power supply. Traditionally the energy demand is satisfied by electricity form the national grid. Alternatively, a local energy production increases the energetic self-sufficiency of the port areas and reduces the pressure on the national grid with continuous peaks of energy demand. This way the port area can be considered a microgrid, characterized by both energy producers and consumers. This paper presents an optimization model, implemented on MATLAB, to provide the best sizing for a combined photovoltaic/energy storage/cold ironing system. The ferry traffic of the port of Ancona (Italy) has been taken as case study. The proposed model returns the percentage of the energy demand covered, the interactions with the national grid, and the optimal size of the PV plant and the storage capacity basing on a Life Cycle Cost (LCC) approach. Results show that the optimal configurations are 2100 kW and 3600 kW with 5750 kWh (without and with storage system) considering lower initial and operational costs, and 3700 kW and 6400 kW with 17,350 kWh (without and with storage system) hypothesizing higher costs. All scenarios ensure an environmental saving, compared to traditional on-board diesel generators, with 87.4 % maximal CO2 reduction achieved
Indoor and Outdoor Performance of an Enhanced Photovoltaic Panel through Graphene/Fins/Phase Change Materials
Full text linkThe operative temperature of a photovoltaic cell influences the electric conversion yield. This can be enhanced by cooling the panel. Among the studied solutions, phase change materials (PCM) exploit latent heat and absorb a large amount of energy at a nearly constant temperature. PCMs suffer from a low thermal conductivity. Under these premises the paper presents a hybrid graphene/fins/PCM cooling system to maximize efficiency gains and thermal recovery. An indoor laboratory characterization, under a solar simulator, compares the proposed model with a reference one (an identical, simple PV module) under fixed environmental conditions. Outdoor tests investigate the performances of the two systems under natural conditions. Indoor results show that the front temperature of the proposed PCM integrated module is averagely 6 °C less, with a peak of 8 °C, than the reference case. This means an increase in the electric yield of about 3%. Outdoor investigations prove that, when the PCM is solid and during the melting phase, the proposed system is averagely 1.12 °C and 4.87 °C colder than the reference case, respectively. The thermal efficiency is 30% and 65%, respectively. Once the melting process is completed, the performance becomes worse, and the hybrid panel is almost 3 °C warmer than the simple panel
Design and validation of an adjustable large-scale solar simulator
No full textThis work presents an adjustable large-scale solar simulator based on metal halide lamps. The design procedure is described with regards to the construction and spatial arrangement of the lamps and the designed optical system. Rotation and translation of the lamp array allow setting the direction and the intensity of the luminous flux on the horizontal plane. To validate the built model, irradiance nonuniformity and temporal instability tests were carried out assigning Class A, B, or C for each test, according to the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) standards requirements. The simulator meets the Class C standards on a 200 × 90 cm test plane, Class B on 170 × 80 cm, and Class A on 80 × 40 cm. The temporal instability returns Class A results for all the measured points. Lastly, a PV panel is characterized by tracing the I–V curve under simulated radiation, under outdoor natural sunlight, and with a numerical method. The results show a good approximation
Evaluation of the influence of lithium-ion battery composition on thermal power generation
Full text linkLithium-ion batteries are currently the most widely technology used for electric mobility. During their service life, batteries can be subjected to high discharge currents, which increase the temperature of the cells. Therefore, it is essential to properly design the battery thermal management system to keep the batteries in the optimal temperature range and to avoid inefficiencies, reduction of life cycles and thermal runaway. These systems require the knowledge of the battery heat generation to be as accurate as possible. The purpose of this work is to suggest a methodology to evaluate the heat generation of batteries during discharge and to compare the thermal behavior of three commercial batteries that are usually adopted in electric vehicles. In particular, LFP, NCA, and NMC batteries were experimentally tested at ambient temperature and under different operating currents, measuring cell voltage and surface temperature. The heat generation was evaluated using a simplified equation and the results were deeply analyzed and discussed. The results show that the NCA cell has the highest heat generation and surface temperature. Also, the ratio between the heat generated and the electrical energy supplied is higher for the NCA cell, while the NMC cell exhibits the lowest value. The NMC cell shows the highest energy efficiency among the batteries under investigation. The mean efficiencies obtained were 0.8, 0.76, and 0.82, respectively, for the LFP, NCA, and NMC cells
Preliminary assessment of a two-phase direct cooling of Lithium-Ion battery pack for e-bike mobility
Full text linkElectric mobility is playing an increasingly central role in emission reduction policies to mitigate climate change effect. During the operation of electric vehicles, the batteries may be subject to high variation of the required current, which can lead to a sudden increase in the cell temperature. If this condition occurs repeatedly, there would be a reduction in battery capacity and useful life, and autonomy reduction of the electric vehicle. In the worst case, this problem can lead to the thermal runaway. Therefore, cooling of electric vehicle propulsion systems is a fundamental issue for the electric mobility development. In this article we propose an innovative cooling system using a dielectric low boiling fluid in which the batteries are directly immersed. The system was tested on an electric bicycle under real operative conditions. A special test bench was realized, consisting of a real electric bicycle, a training roller to simulate the load due to road slope and an external electric motor to simulate the pedaling of the cyclist. The results show a substantial decrease in the temperature of the cells with the proposed cooling system and there was a marked improvement in the temperature uniformity of the cells inside the battery pack
Effects of Double-Diffusive Convection on Calculation Time and Accuracy Results of a Salt Gradient Solar Pond: Numerical Investigation and Experimental Validation
Full text linkThe main aim of this study is to investigate numerically and experimentally the effects of double-diffusive convection on calculation time and accuracy results of a Salt Gradient Solar Pond (SGSP). To this end, two-numerical models are developed based on the Fortran programming language. The first one is based on energy balance neglecting the development of double-diffusive convection, while the second is two-dimensional and is based on Navier-Stokes, heat, and mass transfer equations considering the development of double-diffusive convection. The heat losses via the upper part, bottom, and vertical walls, as well as the internal heating of saltwater, are considered. In order to validate and compare both numerical models, a laboratory-scale SGSP is designed, built, and tested indoors for 82 h. Results indicate that the two numerical models developed can predict the SGSP thermal behavior with good accuracy. Furthermore, the average relative error between experimental and numerical results is around 9.39% for Upper Convective Zone (UCZ) and 2.92% for Lower Convective Zone (LCZ) based on the first model. This error reduces to about 5.98% for UCZ and 3.74% for LCZ by using the second model. Consequently, the neglect of double-diffusive convection in the SGSP modeling tends to overestimate the thermal energy stored in the storage zone by about 4.3%. Based on the calculation time analysis, results show that the second model returns a calculation time hundreds of times larger than the first one and, accordingly, an increase in computational cost
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