8,690 research outputs found
The impact of EC-92 on developing countries'trade : a dissenting view
No full textMost benefits of the European Community (EC-92) program will probably not come from marginal changes in trade flows. Those changes are important to European policymakers, but are of remote interest to developing countries. The main threats to developing countries are the diversion of investment funds to EC countries and continued external barriers, especially nontariff barriers. The EC expects higher growth and lower prices as a result of EC-92. The net effect on developing countries of the removal of internal trade barriers depends on the country's income and price elasticities with the EC. Current estimates suggest the effect will be small. If new external barriers emerge, or if EC-wide barriers replace national barriers, EC firms may collaborate more with large US or Japanese firms. None of these developments will improve developing countries'trade in manufactures and services. Investment in EC countries may increase to meet the extra demand, growth, or trade diversion resulting from EC-92. This could lead to increased investments in developing countries but given heavy indebtedness in developing countries, is more likely to divert investment funds, thus limiting their future production and growth. Technical standards in EC-92 may also be tougher than national standards in member countries, which could hurt developing country exporters. Is"Fortress Europe"likely? The EC Commission says no, but the Community's record is not good.Environmental Economics&Policies,Economic Theory&Research,TF054105-DONOR FUNDED OPERATION ADMINISTRATION FEE INCOME AND EXPENSE ACCOUNT,Trade and Regional Integration,Trade Policy
EC Bananarama 1992 : the sequel - the EC Commission proposal
No full textSome European Community (EC) countries give preferred market access and high prices to bananas from selected developing countries or EC regional suppliers. This preferential status is regarded as a form of aid to these countries, most of which are developing small island economies. EC marketers of bananas from these preferred suppliers also benefit because of the high retail prices. Nonpreferred suppliers - mainly developing countries of Latin America - are hurt by the policies because access is denied or restricted and the lower demand depresses the world price for bananas. The Community's commitment to establish a single unified EC banana market on December 31, 1992 provides a timely opportunity to reform existing distortionary trade policies. The recently announced proposal of the Commission of ECs to regulate banana trade within a unified market relies on quotas to control imports. The proposal is extremely complicated. It is designed to severely restrict competition and to maintain the advantages of selected groups. The authors update their earlier analysis of world banana trade to reflect the market in 1993. They evaluate the implications of the Commission's proposal alongside existing and alternative policies. They find that current policies cost EC consumers about 0.3 billion a year to preferred suppliers. So, it costs EC consumers about 1.00 of aid toselect developing countries or regions. Additionally, every dollar of aid reaching preferred suppliers costs other developing country suppliers 5.30 cost to EC consumers, over 1.00 is lost in outright waste. Several plausible versions of the Commission's proposal are modelled. At best they are found to be slightly less costly than existing policies and at worst, considerably more costly. A 3.5 percent reduction in the quota allocation is estimated to lead to a 30 percent increase in the cost of the proposal. The authors conclude that the Commission's proposal for a unified EC banana policy appears to be little more than a way of replacing existing distortionary national policies with an almost equally distortionary single policy and market. The only difference: the costs would be borne by consumers in all EC countries rather than consumers in only some countries. Worse still, costs could increase. Markets that now gain the benefits of mostly open and competitive marketing such as Germany would face closed and uncompetitive conditions. For developing countries exporting bananas, the proposal offers little. At best conditions may be no worse than they are now. At worst the policy could hurt Latin American suppliers even more than current policies and introduce considerable confusion about the level of support to preferred suppliers. Under the proposed quota system aid will not be well targeted. A more efficient way of achieving the EC's aid commitment is through a small tariff of about 17 percent, used to fund a system of well-targeted deficiency payments or direct aid. The only reason for choosing the Commission's proposal over simpler, tariff-based options seems to be to maintain the vested interests of protected EC markteters. But this is contrary to the objectives of unification, which are to seek gains from increased competition and trade.Environmental Economics&Policies,Access to Markets,Markets and Market Access,Economic Theory&Research,Consumption
Politically Acceptable Trade Compromises Between The EC and The US: A Game Theory Approach
No full textA model is developed to quantify the special status of agriculture in the US and the EC trade negotiations. The role of special interests are measured by a policy goals function (PGF) whose weights are estimated for each special interest group. The analysis searches for mutually acceptable, mutually advantageous trade agreements between the US and the EC using a partial equilibrium world trade model coupled with game theory. Results suggest that it is in the best interest of the US (resp. EC) 'for the EC (resp. US) to liberalize whi1e the other follows the status quo policies of 1986. Mutual gains in PGF values to both countries pursuing "large" liberalizations are unlikely to exist, although "small" liberalizations may give rise to "small" mutual gains. Altering each country's action space, and permitting compensatory payments to the most influencial groups yields trade liberalization, but free trade does not result.game theory, trade liberalization, trade negotiations, International Relations/Trade,
The Singer or the Song? Developments in Performers' Rights from the Perspective of a Cultural Economist
No full textOver the last century, performers gradually acquired statutory protection of their economic and moral
rights. These rights are not copyright in the legal sense but neighboring rights and until recently, they
were mainly remuneration rights that are collectively administered. With the WPPT (WIPO
Performers and Phonograms Treaty), performers now have individual exclusive rights for digital
performances; this leads to the question: what has motivated this change – is it a change in the
perception of the value of performer or a change brought about by the changing technology of copying or,
indeed, a change that reflects different economic costs and benefits? The paper discusses the role of
copyright law as an incentive to performers and asks if the economic role of the performer is so different
from that of the author. The conclusion is that a complex interaction of the legal regulations, economic
conditions and institutional arrangements for administering these new rights will determine the outcome
Investigating the evolutionary link between malaria and autoimmunity: a large scale immunogenetic study in two West African populations.
No full textAIM. Despite equivalent exposure to infection and comparable use of protective measures, the Fulani of West Africa have been shown to mount stronger immune responses to Plasmodium falciparum antigens and to be less susceptible to infection and mild disease than sympatric populations (Modiano et al. 1996, PNAS). The Fulani also show a higher response to other pathogens, and both their Th1 and Th2 responses are enhanced, suggesting that their resistance to malaria could result from a generally stronger immune activation. Key genes related to T regulatory cell function are indeed down-regulated in the Fulani (Torcia et al. 2008 PNAS). This disorder of immune homeostasis could be driven by genetic factors positively selected by P. falciparum and may underlie the higher susceptibility of the Fulani to diseases with autoimmune pathogenesis reported in the literature (Fish et al. 1987, Diabetologia; Mahe et al. 1996, Br J Dermatol; Brieger et al. 1997, Trop Med Int Health). The general aim of the proposed investigation is to explore the genetic basis of the lower susceptibility to malaria observed in the Fulani, and in particular to evaluate the role of autoimmunity loci. MATERIALS AND METHODS. To investigate this hypothesis, we conducted a large-scale epidemiological study in rural villages of Burkina Faso inhabited by Fulani, Mossi and Rimaibe communities. The field study lasted 2 years (2007-8) and consisted in a combination of cross sectional and longitudinal surveys. At each survey we collected parasitological (P. falciparum index and parasite density), clinical (fever, anemia, spleen size) and serological data (IgG levels against P. falciparum and self antigens). We genotyped 363 Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms (SNPs) on 2186 samples using the Sequenom System, based on allele-specific primer extension and MALDI-TOF Mass Spectrometry. SNPs included polymorphisms previously shown to be involved in resistance to severe malaria, in resistance to infection and/or in antibody production, as well as polymorphisms at autoimmunity loci. We conducted population genetic analyses and genetic association analysis with parasitological, clinical and serological phenotypes using the free software package R. RESULTS. Principal component analysis revealed that Mossi and Rimaibe (Non-Fulani) are not genetically distinct among themselves, whereas the Fulani are a clearly distinct group, in agreement with data obtained on HLA class I-II alleles (Modiano et al. 2001, Tissue Antigens; Lulli et al. 2009, Hum Immunol). We therefore compared allele frequencies and calculated Fst, a measure of population genetic differentiation, between Fulani and Non-Fulani. We observed that the proportion of autoimmunity SNPs with Fst>0.05 (indicating moderate/high differentiation and corresponding to at least a two-fold difference in allele frequency) is 20%, versus 10% shown by other loci (p=0.03). Genetic association analysis of susceptibility to infection and infection levels showed association signals among genes involved in resistance to severe malaria (TNF, DDC, ABO, IFNG-IL22, GNAS, MECP2, G6PD). Furthermore we observed strong signals of association, both in Fulani and Non-Fulani, in the 5q31 region of the genome, which has been previously linked to P. falciparum infection levels (Rihet et al. 1998, Am J Hum Genet; Mangano et al. 2008, Genes Immun). Finally, association signals were also observed among genes related to T regulatory cell function and/or involved in autoimmunity (TGFBR3, CD25, FCGR2A, CR1, IL1R1L-IL18RAP, IL1A-IL1B, IL21, BLK, ORMDL3, TGFB1). CONCLUSIONS. The results of our investigation support the hypothesis that malaria has exerted a selective pressure on the immune system and has affected is evolution, and provide evidence that common gene regulatory networks could underlie susceptibility to malaria and to immunological disorders such as autoimmune diseases
Investigating the genetic basis of the lower susceptibility to malaria shown by the Fulani of West-Africa.
No full textDespite equivalent exposure to infection and comparable use of protective measures, the Fulani of West Africa have been shown to mount stronger immune responses to Plasmodium falciparum antigens and to be less susceptible to infection and mild disease than sympatric populations. The Fulani also show a higher response to other pathogens, and both their Th1 and Th2 responses are enhanced, suggesting that their resistance to malaria could result from a generally stronger immune activation. Key genes related to T regulatory cell function are indeed down-regulated in the Fulani. This disorder of immune homeostasis could be driven by genetic factors positively selected by P. falciparum and may underlie the reported higher susceptibility of the Fulani to autoimmune diseases. In order to investigate the genetic basis of the lower susceptibility to malaria shown by the Fulani we conducted a large-scale epidemiological study in Burkina Faso consisting of a combination of cross-sectional and longitudinal surveys. We genotyped 363 Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms (SNPs) on 2186 samples, by Sequenom MassArray System. SNPs included polymorphisms previously shown to be involved in resistance to severe malaria, in resistance to infection or in antibody production (www.malariagen.net), as well as polymorphisms at autoimmunity loci. We will show results of: i) inter-ethnic comparison of malaria susceptibility phenotypes; ii) population genetics analysis; iii) genetic association analysis with parasitological, clinical and immunological phenotypes
The etiology of esophageal cancer in high- and low- risk areas of Jiangsu province, China
No full text [Background]Esophageal cancer (EC) remains one of the most common and fatal malignancies worldwide. The geographic variation in EC occurrence is striking, and China is an area with one of the highest incidences of EC. A number of epidemiological studies have been conducted toward EC in the past decades, results suggested that tobacco smoking, alcohol drinking, unhealthy dietary factors and chronic injuries of the esophageal mucosa are important in the development of this disease. Genetic polymorphisms in enzymes involved in metabolism of carcinogens may also influence individual susceptibility. However, the effects of major lifestyle and hereditary risk factors on the development of EC remain poorly understood in China. Moreover, little attention has been paid to the etiological heterogeneity between similar areas with great risk gradient. [Methods]From 2003 to 2007, a large population-based case-control study of EC has been conducted in a selected high-risk area and a selected low-risk area of Jiangsu Province, one of the highest cancer incidence areas in China. In total, 1,520 cases and 3,879 controls were recruited. In this thesis, we evaluated the role of major lifestyle factors such as tobacco smoking, alcohol drinking and dietary factors, as well as inherited determinants including family history of cancer and genetic polymorphisms of alcohol-metabolizing related genes on the risk of EC. In addition, we investigated how much of the risk gradient between two areas could be explained by variation in the distributions of major risk factors. [Results] Tobacco smoking and alcohol drinking moderately increased the risk of EC, while the positive associations were only found among men but not among women. Dietary factors were observed to play important roles in the development of EC. Specific dietary habits i.e., fast eating speed, and hot eating and/or drinking substantially elevated EC risk and could explain more than 20% of EC cases each. High intake of salty foods and fried foods, low consumption of raw garlic were also observed to increase the risk of EC. In addition to environmental and lifestyle factors, we confirmed that a positive family history can significantly increase EC risk, and found the inheritance may modify the effect of some unhealthy lifestyles. Moreover, we further explored the relationship between EC and single nucleotide polymorphismsof ADH1B, ADH1C and ALDH2 genes. Results showed that the slow metabolizing ADH1B G allele, ADH1C G allele and ALDH2 A allele significantly increased EC risk among moderate-to-heavy alcohol drinkers, and a significant interaction was observed between ALDH2 gene and alcohol consumption. Lastly, we found that more than 60% of EC cases could be attributable to major lifestyle risk factors in the study population; furthermore, dissimilar distribution of several lifestyle factors, together with variations of hereditary factors may be largely responsible for the incidence difference between two study areas. [Conclusion]The findings in this thesis confirm that unhealthy lifestyles including smoking, alcohol drinking and some dietary factors are the predominant risk factors of EC in China, and a large proportion of incidence difference between regions at varying risk could be attributed to the different prevalence of lifestyle factors. As most of the identified risk factors are modifiable, these could be translated into risk reduction prevention programs in China, and a substantial proportion of new EC cases are expected to be prevented by eliminating or avoiding these risk factors in the population. </p
Investigating the genetic basis of the Fulani’s lower susceptibility to malaria: the role of autoimmunity loci.
No full textDespite equivalent exposure to infection and comparable use of protective measures, the Fulani of West Africa have been shown to mount stronger immune responses to Plasmodium falciparum antigens and to be less susceptible to infection and mild disease than sympatric populations. The Fulani also show a higher response to other pathogens, and both their Th1 and Th2 responses are enhanced, suggesting that their resistance to malaria could result from a generally stronger immune activation. Key genes related to T regulatory cell function are indeed down-regulated in the Fulani. This disorder of immune homeostasis could be driven by genetic factors positively selected by P. falciparum and may underlie the higher susceptibility of the Fulani to diseases with autoimmune pathogenesis reported in the literature. The general aim of our investigation is to explore the genetic basis of the lower susceptibility to malaria observed in the Fulani, and in particular to evaluate the role of autoimmunity loci. We conducted a large-scale epidemiological study in rural villages of Burkina Faso inhabited by Fulani, Mossi and Rimaibe communities. The field study lasted 2 years (2007-8) and consisted in a combination of cross sectional and longitudinal surveys. At each survey we collected relevant parasitological and clinical data. Serological data (IgG levels against P. falciparum and self antigens) were generated by ELISA on plasma samples from the first survey. We genotyped 363 Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms (SNPs) on 2186 samples using the Sequenom System. Principal component analysis revealed that Mossi and Rimaibe (Non-Fulani) are not genetically distinct among themselves, whereas the Fulani are a clearly distinct group. We therefore compared allele frequencies and calculated Fst between Fulani and Non-Fulani. We observed that the proportion of autoimmunity SNPs with Fst>0.05 (indicating moderate/high differentiation and corresponding to at least a two-fold difference in allele frequency) is 20% versus 10% shown by other loci. Genetic association analysis of susceptibility to infection showed, both in Fulani and Non-Fulani, signals of association among genes: i) involved in resistance to severe malaria (ABO, DDC, G6PD, GNAS, IFNG-IL22, MECP2, TNF); ii) lying in the 5q31 region of the genome, which has been previously linked to P. falciparum infection levels (IRF1); iii) related to T regulatory cell function and/or involved in autoimmunity (BLK, CD25, CR1, FCGR2A, IL1A-IL1B, IL1R1L-IL18RAP, IL21, ORMDL3, TGFB1, TGFBR3). These results support the hypothesis that malaria has exerted a selective pressure on the immune system and has affected its evolution, and suggest that common gene regulatory networks could underlie susceptibility to malaria and to immunological disorders such as autoimmune diseases
Is Fc gamma receptor IIA (FcγRIIA) polymorphism associated with clinical malaria and Plasmodium falciparum specific antibody levels in children from Burkina Faso?
No full textTowards a clearer delimitation of internal European Community competences.
No full textThis thesis is a study of the distribution of competences between the main actors in European integration: namely the European Community and the Member States. It aims to evaluate the place of the competence provisions in the current Treaty structure as well as within the Treaty Establishing a Constitution for Europe. This task first involves a legal-technical exercise based on a textual interpretation of different categories of competences within the above-mentioned sources. Second, it involves a review of the relevant Court of Justice case law with regard to those competences. The study of both has led the author to consider how the evolution of Community competence has given rise to the phenomenon of 'competence' creep'. It is argued that Member States contend that the Community assumes more powers than those it possesses. Thus, the thesis provides an insight into concerns about 'creeping competence'. Certain types of situations are identified under the title of 'creeping competence'. These include, the adoption of unjustified or undesired EC legislation under qualified majority voting the expansion of the Community's competence under Article 308 EC and finally the adoption of EC legislation that goes beyond the scope of Article 5 EC (principle of attribution of powers). The thesis will provide certain examples to underline the problem. It will take account of the use of the flexibility provisions of Article 95 EC and 308 EC with regard to the regulation of health and the Community's accession to the European Convention of Human Rights (ECHR), which are treated as case studies in the thesis. In the context of a problematic system of competences, the author will consider the assumptions made in the Nice and Laeken IGCs as well as the European Convention for a clearer distribution of competence and assess the role of the principle of subsidiarity as a tool against the expansion of Community competence into new policy areas. It is argued that the reform of subsidiarity will enhance EU legitimacy and enlarge the role of national legislatures in the Union. The reconstruction of subsidiarity procedures may remedy the tensions in the current system of competence and provide limits to the degree of EU intervention. Besides tidying up competences between the EU and Member States, European Constitutionalisation hides a question of political finality and further integration. How can the EU establish an effective and democratically legitimate governance beyond the Nation State Via a European Constitution or through alternative methods This question is particularly important in the current context following the French and Dutch rejection of the EU Constitutional Treaty. The chances of the EU Constitution being revived in the near future are slim, since it is unlikely that either France or Holland will soon hold another referendum. Thus, either a period of reflection shall be allowed to Member States or alternative routes to integration shall be considered. The thesis concludes with the hypothesis that as the EU Constitutional Treaty does not provide the answers to most of the questions posed by the Nice and the Laeken European Councils, enhanced cooperation may be utilised as a future method of governance and Fischer's 'Core Europe' as a tool capable of a redistribution of competences inside the Union. But then again the European Union needs to avoid a new iron curtain descending between those Member States that represent the 'core' and those that constitute the 'periphery'
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