1,721,007 research outputs found
Effects of aligned fractures on the response of velocity and attenuation ratios to water saturation variation: a laboratory study using synthetic sandstones
Full text linkP-wave-to-S-wave ratios are important seismic characterization attributes. Velocity ratios are sensitive to the petrophysical properties of rocks and to the presence of gas. Attenuation ratios have also been shown to be sensitive to the presence of partial liquid/gas saturation. The relationship between liquid/gas saturation and P-wave and S-wave ratios has been used to distinguish gas-saturated rocks from liquid-saturated rocks. Aligned fractures are common in the Earth's crust and cause seismic anisotropy and shear wave splitting. However, most existing relationships between partial gas/liquid saturation and P-wave and S-wave ratios are for non-fractured rocks. We present experimental results comparing the effects of changing water saturation on Qs/Qp versus Vp/Vs ratios between a non-fractured rock and one containing fractures aligned parallel to wave propagation direction. We also study the effects of aligned fractures on the response of Vp/Vs to changing water saturation using synthetic fractured sandstones with fractures aligned at 45o and parallel to the wave propagation direction. The results suggest that aligned fractures could have significant effects on the observed trends, some of which may not be obvious. Fractures aligned parallel to wave propagation could change the response of Qs/Qp versus Vp/Vs ratios to water saturation from previously reported trends. Shear wave splitting due to the presence of aligned fractures results in two velocity ratios (Vp/Vs1 and Vp/Vs2). The fluid independence of shear wave splitting for fractures aligned parallel to wave propagation direction means the difference between Vp/Vs1 and Vp/Vs2 is independent of water saturation. For fractures aligned at oblique angles, shear wave splitting can be sensitive to water saturation and consequently be frequency dependent, which can lead to fluid and frequency-dependent differences between Vp/Vs1 and Vp/Vs2. The effect of aligned fractures on Vp/Vs ratios not only depends on the fracture effects on both P-wave and S-wave velocities but also on the effects of water saturation distribution on the rock and fracture stiffness, and hence on the P-wave and S-wave velocities. As such, these effects can be frequency dependent due to wave-induced fluid flow. A simple modelling study combining a frequency-dependent fractured rock model, and a frequency-dependent partial saturation model was used to gain valuable interpretations of our experimental observations and possible implications, which would be useful for field seismic data interpretation
Laboratory determination of the full electrical resistivity tensor of heterogeneous carbonate rocks at elevated pressures
No full textWe describe a measurement system capable of determining the full resistivity tensor of core samples at elevated, geologically representative, pressures using a galvanic method. It is suitable for heterogeneous rocks where it is difficult to measure tensorial resistivity without bias from sample selection and heterogeneity. We demonstrate the efficacy of the system using both synthetic data and measurements on carbonate rock core samples. The apparatus employs a computer controlled array of 16 electrodes to inject current into, and measure boundary voltages on, a 5 cm diameter cylindrical sample. A computationally efficient FE algorithm is used to retrieve the full resistivity tensor from the measured voltages. The algorithm uses isotropic Finite Element code to calculate anisotropic solutions for samples of arbitrary geometry. Initial results from Jurassic limestone and Triassic dolomite samples, reveal cm-scale heterogeneity and significant bulk anisotropy consistent with rock fabric observed in X-ray Computed Tomography scan images
Attenuation of seismic waves in methane gas hydrate-bearing sand
No full textCompressional wave (P wave) and shear wave (S wave) velocities (Vp and Vs, respectively) from remote seismic methods have been used to infer the distribution and volume of gas hydrate within marine sediments. Recent advances in seismic methods now allow compressional and shear wave attenuations (Q1p and Q1s, respectively) to be measured. However, the interpretation of these data is problematic due to our limited understanding of the effects of gas hydrate on physical properties. Therefore, a laboratory gas hydrate resonant column was developed to simulate pressure and temperature conditions suitable for methane gas hydrate formation in sand specimens and the subsequent measurement of both Q1p and Q1s at frequencies and strains relevant to marine seismic surveys. 13 dry (gas saturated) sand specimens were investigated with different amounts of methane gas hydrate evenly dispersed throughout each specimen. The results show that for these dry specimens both Q1p and Q1s are highly sensitive to hydrate saturation with unexpected peaks observed between 3 and 5 per cent hydrate saturation. It is thought that viscous squirt flow of absorbed water or free gas within the pore space is enhanced by hydrate cement at grain contacts and by the nanoporosity of the hydrate itself. These results show for the first time the dramatic effect methane gas hydrate can have on seismic wave attenuation in sand, and provide insight into wave propagation mechanisms. These results will aid the interpretation of elastic wave attenuation data obtained using marine seismic prospecting methods
Anomalous electrical resistivity anisotropy in clean reservoir sandstones
No full textWe report novel laboratory measurements of the full electrical resistivity tensor in reservoir analogue quartzose sandstones with clay contents less than 1.5%. We show that clean, homogeneous, visually uniform sandstone samples typically display between 15% and 25% resistivity anisotropy with minimum resistivity normal to the bedding plane. Thin-section petrography, analysis of fabric anisotropy, and comparison to finite-element simulations of grain pack compaction show that the observed anisotropy symmetries and magnitudes can be explained by syn-depositional and post-depositional compaction processes. Our findings suggest that: electrical resistivity anisotropy is likely to be present in most clastic rocks as a consequence of ballistic deposition and compaction; compaction may be deduced from measurements of electrical anisotropy; and the anisotropy observed at larger scales in well logging and controlled-source electromagnetic data, with maximum resistivity normal to bedding, is most likely the result of meso-scale (10-1 m – 101 m) periodic layering of electrically dissimilar lithologies
A new laboratory technique for determining the compressional wave properties of marine sediments at sonic frequencies and in situ pressures
Full text linkWe describe a new laboratory technique for measuring the compressional wave velocity and attenuation of jacketed samples of unconsolidated marine sediments within the acoustic (sonic) frequency range 1–10 kHz and at elevated differential (confining – pore) pressures up to 2.413 MPa (350 psi). The method is particularly well suited to attenuation studies because the large sample length (up to 0.6 m long, diameter 0.069 m) is equivalent to about one wavelength, thus giving representative bulk values for heterogeneous samples. Placing a sediment sample in a water-filled, thick-walled, stainless steel Pulse Tube causes the spectrum of a broadband acoustic pulse to be modified into a decaying series of maxima and minima, from which the Stoneley and compressional wave, velocity and attenuation of the sample can be determined. Experiments show that PVC and copper jackets have a negligible effect on the measured values of sediment velocity and attenuation, which are accurate to better than ± 1.5% for velocity and up to ± 5% for attenuation. Pulse Tube velocity and attenuation values for sand and silty-clay samples agree well with published data for similar sediments, adjusted for pressure, temperature, salinity and frequency using standard equations. Attenuation in sand decreases with pressure to small values below Q−1 = 0.01 (Q greater than 100) for differential pressures over 1.5 MPa, equivalent to sub-seafloor depths of about 150 m. By contrast, attenuation in silty clay shows little pressure dependence and intermediate Q−1 values between 0.0206–0.0235 (Q = 49–43). The attenuation results fill a notable gap in the grain size range of published data sets. Overall, we show that the Pulse Tube method gives reliable acoustic velocity and attenuation results for typical marine sediments
Joint elastic-electrical properties of reservoir sandstones and their relationships with petrophysical parameters
No full textWe measured in the laboratory ultrasonic compressional and shear-wave velocity and attenuation (0.7–1.0 MHz) and low-frequency (2 Hz) electrical resistivity on 63 sandstone samples with a wide range of petrophysical properties to study the influence of reservoir porosity, permeability and clay content on the joint elastic-electrical properties of reservoir sandstones. P- and S-wave velocities were found to be linearly correlated with apparent electrical formation factor on a semi-logarithmic scale for both clean and clay-rich sandstones; P- and S-wave attenuations showed a bell-shaped correlation (partial for S-waves) with apparent electrical formation factor. The joint elastic-electrical properties provide a way to discriminate between sandstones with similar porosities but with different clay contents. The laboratory results can be used to estimate sandstone reservoir permeability from seismic velocity and apparent formation factor obtained from co-located seismic and controlled source electromagnetic surveys
Modelling ultrasonic laboratory measurements of the saturation dependence of elastic modulus: New insights and implications for wave propagation mechanisms
Full text linkSeismic time-lapse techniques are a valuable tool used to estimate the mobilization and distribution of stored CO2 in depleted reservoirs. The success of these techniques depends on knowing the seismic properties of partially saturated rocks with accuracy. It is commonplace to use controlled laboratory-scale experiments to determine how the fluid content impacts on their properties. In this work, we measure the ultrasonic P- and S-wave velocities of a set of synthetic sandstones of about 30% porosity. Using an accurate method, we span the entire saturation range of an air-water system. We show that the rocks’ elastic behaviour is consistent with patchy saturation and squirt flow models but observe a discontinuity at around 90% gas saturation which can be interpreted in two very different ways. In one interpretation, the responsible mechanism is frequency-dependent squirt-flow that occurs in narrow pores that are preferentially saturated. An equally plausible mechanism is the change of the mobile fluid in the pores once they are wetted. Extrapolated to seismic frequencies, our results imply that the seismic properties of rocks may be affected by the wetting effect with an impact on the interpretation of field data but would potentially be unaffected by the squirt flow effect. This provides strong motivation to conduct laboratory-scale experiments with partially saturated samples at lower frequency or, ideally, a range of frequencies in the seismo-acoustic range
Pressure effects on the joint elastic-electrical properties of reservoir sandstones
No full textWe conducted a laboratory study of the joint elastic-electrical properties of sixty-three brine-saturated sandstone samples to assess the likely impact of differential pressure (confining minus pore fluid pressures) in the range 8–60 MPa on the joint interpretation of marine seismic and controlled-source electromagnetic survey data. The samples showed a wide range of petrophysical properties representative of most sandstone reservoirs. We found that a regression equation comprising both a constant and an exponential part gave a good fit to the pressure dependence of all five measured geophysical parameters (ultrasonic P- and S-wave velocity, attenuation and electrical resistivity). Electrical resistivity was more pressure-sensitive in clay-rich sandstones with higher concentrations of low aspect ratio pores and micropores than in clean sandstones. Attenuation was more pressure-sensitive in clean sandstones with large open pores (macropores) than in clay-rich sandstones. Pore shape did not show any influence on the pressure sensitivity of elastic velocity. As differential pressure increases, the effect of the low aspect ratio pores and micropores on electrical resistivity becomes stronger than the effect of the macropores on attenuation. Further analysis of correlations among the five parameters as a function of pressure revealed potentially diagnostic relationships for geopressure prediction in reservoir sandstones
3D reconstruction of a shallow archaeological site from high resolution acoustic imagery: a case study (abstract of paper presented at AGU Fall Meeting, San Francisco, 5-9 Dec 2005)
Full text linkHigh resolution acoustic surveying for buried objects in the shallow waters of the inter-tidal to sub-tidal zone is a major challenge to many sectors of the marine surveying community. This is a consequence of a number of issues such as the relationship between water depth and acoustic acquisition geometry; problems of vessel induced bubble clouds reducing the signal-to-noise (SNR) ratio; and the necessity of high spatial survey accuracy in three-dimensions. These challenges are particularly acute for the marine archaeological community, who are frequently required to non-destructively investigate shallow-water (< 5 m) sites.
This paper addresses these challenges and demonstrates the potential of imaging buried objects in extremely shallow environments by describing a seamless marine archaeological and geophysical investigation of a buried shipwreck: Henry V’s ‘great flagship’, the Grace Dieu (1418). The site, located in the Hamble River (UK), is typically covered by 2-5 m of water, and is partially buried within muddy inter-tidal sediments. At exceptionally low tides, during the spring equinox, a few of the marginal timbers are exposed.
The marine survey utilised three different deployment methods of a Chirp system: two 2D Chirp systems, each emitting different frequencies and accompanied by different navigational systems (DGPS versus RTK), and a 3D Chirp system with RTK positioning capability. In all cases, the source was towed over the site using diver power. Close survey line spacing, accurate navigation and decimetre scale vertical and horizontal resolution acoustic data enabled the construction of a pseudo and full 3D image of this buried wreck site. This has been calibrated against known archaeological site investigation data and an RTK-GPS terrestrial survey.
This data has identified the true plan form and dimensions of the remaining segments of the vessel, supporting the assertion that it was the most significant naval design for over two centuries. It has also been possible to identify the presence of a horizon of incoherent timbers associated with the scuttling of the vessel
Water saturation effects on P-wave anisotropy in synthetic sandstone with aligned fractures
Full text linkThe seismic properties of rocks are known to be sensitive to partial liquid or gas saturation, and to aligned fractures. P-wave anisotropy is widely used for fracture characterization and is known to be sensitive to the saturating fluid. However, studies combining the effect of multiphase saturation and aligned fractures are limited even though such conditions are common in the subsurface. An understanding of the effects of partial liquid or gas saturation on P-wave anisotropy could help improve seismic characterization of fractured, gas bearing reservoirs. Using octagonal-shaped synthetic sandstone samples, one containing aligned penny-shaped fractures and the other without fractures, we examined the influence of water saturation on P-wave anisotropy in fractured rocks. In the fractured rock, the saturation related stiffening effect at higher water saturation values is larger in the direction across the fractures than along the fractures. Consequently, the anisotropy parameter ‘?’ decreases as a result of this fluid stiffening effect. These effects are frequency dependent as a result of wave-induced fluid flow mechanisms. Our observations can be explained by combining a frequency-dependent fractured rock model and a frequency-dependent partial saturation model
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