Social Psychological Bulletin
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Ease of Retrieval in Evaluative Conditioning
No full textEvaluative conditioning (EC), the change in the liking of a conditioned stimulus due to its pairing with a positive or negative stimulus, is a key effect in attitude formation. Current theories on EC emphasize the role of memory in EC, assuming that explicit memory on the stimulus pairings strengthens the EC effect. In this paper, we extend the scope of memory’s role in EC by focusing on whether the metacognitive experience of ease during memory retrieval influences EC effects beyond the effects of the retrieved memory content. In two preregistered experiments (total N = 392), we tested for ease-of-retrieval effects in EC by letting participants recall few vs. many unconditioned stimuli before giving an evaluative judgment. Although the manipulation was successful in manipulating ease-of-retrieval, we found no evidence for an influence of ease-of-retrieval effects resulting from the experimental manipulation on EC. However, the subjectively perceived ease of retrieval was indeed associated with stronger EC effects. Overall, these findings show no evidence that ease resulting from an instruction to recollect more/less US information contributes to EC effects but leave open whether ease-of-retrieval from other sources contributes to EC effects
Civic Engagement and Civic Competences in Adolescence: A Gender-Based Perspective
No full textAs outlined by the Council of Europe’s Reference Framework of Competences for Democratic Culture (RFCDC), civic competences are core elements for active participation in a democratic society. This study aimed to examine the linkages between four civic competences (empathy, respect, responsibility, and cooperation) and civic engagement (attitudes and behaviors) during adolescence, as well as test the potential role played by gender, both as a covariate and a moderator. We recruited a sample of 446 adolescents (70% females; Mage = 16.51, SD = 1.35) from a high school in Southern Italy and administered a set of online self-report scales: civic attitudes and behaviors were evaluated through the Civic Engagement Scale; empathy was assessed through the Empathic Concern subscale of the Brief Interpersonal Reactivity Index; cooperation was assessed through the Cooperation Scale; responsibility and respect were measured through a set of descriptors provided by the RFCDC. A Structural Equation Model (SEM) was run to test the hypothesized associations, and a series of multiple group SEM was performed to evaluate the moderating role of gender on the relations between civic competences and civic engagement. Our findings showed only empathy and cooperation were positively and significantly related to civic attitudes and civic behaviors. Gender differences were found for empathy, cooperation, and respect, with girls reporting higher levels than boys. Adolescents’ gender was also found to be a significant moderator of relations linking empathy, cooperation and respect with civic engagement. Limitations and implications are discussed
(Almost) No Evidence of Self–Other Differences in Risk Preferences and Cognitive Processing Among Professionals in Contextualized Risky-Choice Framing Tasks
No full textA substantial body of research has shown that risky decisions made for others often differ from those made for oneself. However, findings remain mixed, and there is still ongoing discussion about when and for whom self-other differences are most likely to emerge or be strongest. Building on previous research, which has primarily focused on lay samples and the outcomes of decision-making rather than the underlying processes, the current study reports on four preregistered experiments examining self–other differences across various professional domains, while also testing the commonly assumed cognitive mechanisms. Participants (total N = 1,337) were financial advisors at a large trade union (Experiment 1), leaders at a local government organization (Experiment 2) and a large hospital (Experiment 3), and a general sample of employees and leaders (Experiment 4). Participants completed a risky choice problem tailored to reflect their professional background (Experiments 1–3), where they were asked to choose between a safe and risky option either for themselves or for a hypothetical other, in both gain and loss frames. They then reported the extent to which they engaged in intuitive and analytical processing, and their emotional arousal. There was no evidence for consistent self-other differences in risk and no moderation by frame. In addition, there were no self-other differences in cognitive processing or affect. However, there was a main effect of framing in all experiments—that is, greater risk-seeking in loss (vs. gain) frames
Gender, Register and the Multilingual Repertoire: Lexical Versus Grammatical Features in Namibian German
No full textThe present study investigates gender differences in the use of Namibian German versus Standard German in multilingual German-speakers raised in Namibia. Based on data from the DNam corpus of spoken Namibian German, the study compares the frequency of use of Namibian-German lexical and grammatical variants and their Standard German equivalents in male versus female speakers. For the use of lexical features, clear gender differences emerged, with male speakers producing significantly more specific Namibian German variants than female speakers. For grammatical features, however, no gender differences were found. The observed gender differences for lexical features were significantly stronger in informal than in formal communicative settings. The results are discussed in relation to theoretical accounts of the role of gender in language use
Fairness is What You Can Get Away With: Proposer and Responder Behaviour in a Collective Action Ultimatum Game
No full textThe collective action of subordinates has historically been the most important factor constraining exploitative behaviour of powerful individuals. However, subordinate collective action is often overlooked within the psychological literature examining the effect of power on decision making. Using a modified multiplayer version of the Ultimatum Game, we investigated how the ease of collective action affected the decision making of Proposers and Responders. Altogether 256 students took part in a 20-round Collective Action Ultimatum Game. They were divided into four conditions and into fixed groups of four (three Responders per group). The ease of collective action was operationalized as the contribution responders needed to make to a ‘collective pot’ to prevent the Proposer receiving their allocation. The mechanism that determined how total contributions could result in a successful rejection varied between the four conditions (‘Easy’, ‘Medium’, ‘Hard’ and ‘Impossible’). The study found that Proposers in the Easy/Medium conditions divided resources more equally than those in the Hard/Impossible conditions from the start of the game. Results also showed that ease did not affect Responders’ willingness to engage in collective action, but in the Hard condition they became more accepting of unequal offers as the game progressed. Results suggest that the ease of collective action (i) induces more egalitarian behaviour by individuals in a position of power, and (ii) makes subordinates less willing to accept inequality
Exploring Self-Reported Helping, Punishment, and Moral Courage Within and Across Group Boundaries: Implications for the Inclusion of Others in Self Scale
No full textAltruism may not be a unitary concept but may include behaviorally dissociable subfactors. Here, we examined the effects of social distance within and across group boundaries on three facets of altruism: help giving, peer punishment, and moral courage. Using real-life scenarios presented as vignettes, participants were asked to indicate the likelihood that they would engage in the described behaviors across three different social settings: a familiar low-distance in-group, an unfamiliar high-distance in-group, and a hostile out-group. We used the Inclusion of Others in Self (IOS) scale to measure perceived closeness to members of the described social group. We hypothesized that help giving would be most and moral courage least sensitive to variations in social distance. In both studies, results revealed no significant differences in help giving across variations in social distance but a higher self-reported likeliness to show morally courageous acts in the familiar and close in-group compared to the other groups. The results for peer punishment were only partially consistent, following a similar pattern to moral courage. IOS scores discriminated between high and low-distance in-groups, as expected, but did not discriminate well between a high-distance in-group and hostile out-group. On the other hand, facet-specific trait scores correlated significantly with vignette responses. When the three facets were considered together across all vignettes, in-group favoritism became apparent. The studies contribute to our understanding of the social context conditions of altruistic behaviors and call for the refinement of experimental and self-report measures in the study of altruistic behavior
Personality Effects on Two Types of Whistleblowing Decisions
No full textWhen employees observe an immoral practice under the control of their employer, they face a decision on whether to act against it. If they do want to act, they need to decide how to report their concerns, that is, whether they want to use internal (i.e., to other members of the organization) or external reporting channels (e.g., to the media). In the present contribution, we investigate which personality traits relate to these two types of whistleblowing decisions. In a two-wave scenario study (N = 724), we tested whether HEXACO Honesty-Humility is associated with a decision for whistleblowing (vs. inaction) and whether HEXACO Agreeableness is associated with a decision for internal (vs. external) whistleblowing. Our predictions were not confirmed, and all in all, the six HEXACO dimensions jointly explained only a small amount of variance in these two whistleblowing decisions. There was, however, evidence from exploratory analyses showing that higher levels of Honesty-Humility were positively associated with a decision for internal (vs. external) whistleblowing
Do They Sound Gay? Positive Bias in the Promotability of Gay-Sounding Speakers
No full textGay-sounding men are often perceived as not suitable for leadership roles. However, this bias may depend on the type of role they apply for since gay men are seen as a better fit for stereotypically feminine than masculine roles. Hence, gay-sounding men may have an advantage when applying for feminine leadership roles. In a pilot study, we identified Italian male speakers who were perceived as either gay- or straight-sounding by British listeners. In the main study, we tested the perception and career advancement to more senior roles of candidates who already held managerial positions. British participants (N = 113) listened to foreign (Italian) male candidates who either sounded gay or straight. They then judged their suitability for stereotypically feminine, masculine, and neutral senior roles and rated them in terms of agency and communion. Results showed a positive bias such as that gay-sounding candidates were seen as more suitable for stereotypically feminine senior roles than straight-sounding candidates because they were seen as more communal. Such positive bias was stronger among those participants who reported the lowest level of negative attitudes toward gay men. These findings contribute to the current literature on voice-based discrimination by showing positive stereotyping and positive biases toward gay-sounding men
The Interaction of Gender, Occupation, and Fine Phonetic Detail
No full textDoes a woman working as a soldier speak in a more masculine manner? And does being told a man is a kindergarten teacher make him ‘sound’ more feminine to the listener? We explore these questions in two studies examining the production of speech by 36 participants in three gender-(a)typical occupations (soldiers, kindergarten teachers, individuals in leading positions) (Study 1), and the perception of identical speech framed as that of kindergarten teachers or soldiers (Study 2). In addition, the influence of self-ascribed femininity on variation in fine phonetic details is investigated. Results of Study 1 show no differences in mean fundamental frequency between the three occupational groups, but do show a higher second formant (reflecting a more fronted articulation) in kindergarten teachers than in soldiers and leaders, potentially associated with a clearer, friendlier speaking style. Independent of occupation, men who rated themselves high on femininity were found to have higher mean f0 and more dispersed vowels than men who rated themselves low on femininity. In addition, intra-speaker variation in f0 patterns was found between same gender and different gender dialogues. Results of Study 2 corroborate stereotypical attributions of warmth depending on the assumed occupation of the speaker. Stimuli assumed to come from kindergarten teachers were rated significantly more friendly and more emotional than the same stimuli assumed to come from soldiers by younger listeners, while older listeners rated the assumed kindergarten teachers as less warm than the assumed soldiers pointing to a change in attitude towards these occupations. Findings are relevant in the light of changing gender roles, occupational stereotypes and the expression of gender through voice